Types of Bill of Lading

Types of Bill Of  Lading There are two types of Bill of Lading (B/L) on the basis of Receipt of cargo:- 1. Shipped on Board B/L: Cargo is on board the vessel, It confirms the buyer that cargo is actually shipped. 2. Received for Shipment B/L:   Shipping Company confirms having received the goods for shipment by the vessel mentioned therein. When the goods later loaded on the vessel, a supplementary clause may be inserted in B/L, if it’s not already negotiated: â€Å"Actual shipped on Board† – On (Date) and is signed by Shipping agent or Shipping Company Type of Bill of Lading on the Basis of Trade Parties Involved 1.House Bill of Lading: Issued by Freight Forwarder or Agent having MTO License from DGFT, Ministry of Shipping. 2. Master Bill of Lading: Issued by Shipping or Agent having MTO (Ministry of Transportation) License from DGFT (Director General of Foreign Trade), Ministry of Shipping. Types of Bill of Lading on the basis of Voyage 1. Direct B/L: It co vers transportation on one and same vessel from POL to POD i. e. , shipment on vessels offering direct calls from port to port. 2. Through B/L: It covers transportation with transshipment, Inland transportation involved at origin port or destination or at both the sides.Throughput B/L usually show â€Å"transshipment at carriers’ expense but at consignee’s risk† Types of bills of lading on the basis of beneficiaries: – 1. Bill of Lading â€Å"To Order†: B/L is drawn on order of the shipper, the consignee or bank can be endorsed in favor of another person who may be the final receiver or an intermediate beneficiary. Commonly used in commercial transaction 2. Bill of Lading â€Å"To Bearer†: Bearer of bill of lading can obtain delivery of goods. There is no endorsement of bank or Consignee is required on the same. Types of Bill of Lading on the basis of reservation by the carrier 1.Clean Bill of Lading: If there is no clause or comment by the carrier in the bill of lading than it shall be considered as clear B/L. 2. Clause Bill of Lading: If any clause or comment mentioned than it would be clause bill of Lading. For e. g. , â€Å"Dented Drums† Other Types of Bill of Lading * Inland bill of lading * Ocean bill of lading * Air waybill An inland bill of lading is a document that establishes an agreement between a shipper and a transportation company for the transportation of goods. It is used to lay out the terms for transporting items overland to the exporter’s international transportation company.An ocean bill of lading is a document that provides terms between an exporter and international carrier for the shipment of goods to a foreign location overseas. An air waybill is a bill of lading that establishes terms of flights for the transportation of goods both domestically and internationally. This document also serves as a receipt for the shipper, proving the carrier’s acceptance of the shipperâ€℠¢s goods and agreement to carry those goods to a specific airport. Essentially, an air waybill is a type of through bill of lading.This is because air waybills may cover both international and domestic transportation of goods. By contrast, ocean shipments require both inland and ocean bills of lading. Inland bills of lading are necessary for the domestic transportation of goods and ocean bills of lading are necessary for the international  carriage  of goods. Therefore, through bills of lading may not be used for ocean shipments. Inland and ocean bills of lading may be negotiable or non-negotiable. If the bill of lading is non-negotiable, the transportation carrier is required to provide delivery only to the consignee named in the document.If the bill of lading is negotiable, the person with ownership of the bill of lading has the right of ownership of the goods and the right to re-route the shipment. Air cargo Air cargo shipment is most common and practical way of receiving you r orders on time and cost saving. If your orders volume is 100 kilos plus then air cargo is the best. Receive your order starting from one week to 10 days. Air cargo will deliver the order in specified airport so that the customer or their handling agent should collect it. Shipments by Air CouriersShipment using courier services are the best for relatively smaller orders and samples as they deliver the orders in 4 to 6 days at your doorstep. Nepal Mithila Women Handicraft uses most Reliable couriers like  Ã‚  DHL/ARAMEX/FEDEX/TNT/UPS or SYKNET because they are easier to work with due to their fast and home delivery. These courier companies have expensive rates for the smaller packets but if the orders are more than 25 kilos, the approximate shipping would be US$ 8 to $14 per kilo (depending on the volume and the destination).These courier companies will act as your custom agent to release the goods and delivers the packets at your home. The courier companies does not charge you fo r their own services at the custom BUT if there is custom duties applies on the orders, then thy will reimburse the money from the customer later at the orders delivery time. Labels: Each article will be fixed with label showing made in  Nepal, material composition, washing instructions, size etc. as appropriate. We follow buyers' instruction in case of bulk consignment. Documentations:We prepare the following documentation work from the company and authorized sectors of  Nepal's government for the customs purpose AIR WAYBILL, GSP OR FORM A, INVOICE, PACKING LIST, CERTIFICATE OF ORIGIN and other essential documentations to release the shipment from the customs Terms: Air Freight FSC- Fuel surcharge, applicable only at certain times Interline- One airline to another ULD  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Unit load device, an airline container SCR- Specific commodity rate GCR- General commodity rate MAWB- Master air waybill, freight forwarder to freight forwarder air waybill HAWB- House air waybill, shi pper to consignee air waybillIATA- Governing body for international air transportation Ground Freight B-train- 2-20ft. trailers being pulled by one tractor LTL- Less than a truckload FTL  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Full truckload CWT  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Per hundred pounds PUP- 20ft. trailer T/L  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Trailer Load Dimensional Freight- Subject to 10# per cubic ft. Calculations: Calculate Kilograms to Pounds kgs x 2. 2= pounds (#) Calculate Pounds to Kilograms Pounds ? 2. 2= kgs Dimensional weight L†xW†xH† ? 366= kgs L†xW†xH† ? 166= pounds Six Steps to Dealing with Customer Complaints At some point, everyone in business has to deal with an upset customer.The challenge is to handle the situation in a way that leaves the customer thinking you operate a great company. If you’re lucky, you can even encourage him or her to serve as a passionate advocate for your brand. When it comes down to it, many customers don't even bother to complain. They simply leave and buy from your competitors. Research suggests that up to 80 percent of customers who leave were, in fact, â€Å"satisfied† with the original company. Obviously, customer satisfaction is not enough. Businesses nowadays need to positively delight customers if they want to earn their loyalty.It may seem counter-intuitive, but a business owner’s ability to effectively deal with customer complaints provides a great opportunity to turn dissatisfied customers into active promoters of the business. Here are some customer-oriented tips I’ve learned while working in the business coaching business:1. Listen carefully to what the customer has to say, and let them finish. Don't get defensive. The customer is not attacking you personally; he or she has a problem and is upset. Repeat back what you are hearing to show that you have listened. 2. Ask questions in a caring and concerned manner.The more information you can get from the customer, the better you will understand his or her perspective. I’ve learned it’s easier to ask questions than to jump to conclusions. 3. Put yourself in their shoes. As a business owner, your goal is to solve the problem, not argue. The customer needs to feel like you’re on his or her side and that you empathize with the situation. 4. Apologize without blaming. When a customer senses that you are sincerely sorry, it usually diffuses the situation. Don't blame another person or department. Just say, â€Å"I'm sorry about that. †5. Ask the customer, â€Å"What would be an acceptable solution to you? Whether or not the customer knows what a good solution would be, I’ve found it’s best to propose one or more solutions to alleviate his or her pain. Become a partner with the customer in solving the problem. 6. Solve the problem, or find someone who can solve it— quickly! Research indicates that customers prefer the person they are speaking with to instantly solve their problem. When comp laints are moved up the chain of command, they become more expensive to handle and only add to the customer's frustration. There is no getting around customer complaints, regardless of your industry.However, by employing these steps and taking the time to review the issue with the customer, you can turn challenges into something constructive. | 10 Tips for dealing with customer complaints Dealing with customer complaints effectively can improve customer retention and help your company gain a reputation for providing good service. Our panel of experts shares their top tips to ensure complaints don’t turn into disasters. 1. Acknowledge their anger and apologise Whilst you are listening to them, make a note (mentally or written down) of the main points of their grievance.Once they are finished, thank them for their comments, acknowledge their anger and apologise. 2. Reassure the customer Use the notes you made whilst listening to demonstrate that you have a secure grasp on the p roblem by giving them a precis of what they have just told you. Mirror some of their (less colourful! ) language, keep your tone measured and calm and ask a closed question at the end to check you have a full understanding. By now, the customer should at least be ready to let you help them. Assure them that is exactly what you’re going to do and explain he realistic options you have available to you. If the customer wants something that simply is not possible, apologise, give reasons why this is not an available option and then tell them what you can do for them. 3. Act Finally, once you have explained what you are going to do to resolve the customer’s problem, do it. Follow it through and ensure that what you promised is delivered. Hopefully, by this point, you will have a happy customer who will return to your company, not to mention a happy agent whose days are a little less stressful! 4. Make it easy to speak to a live agentCommunicate the ease and accessibility of reaching live agents in channels of the customer’s choosing, and prepare and empower your employees to provide first-contact resolution. Most customers who say it is hard to deal with a company said it was because their issue was not resolved the first time they contacted them for service. Self-service certainly has its time and place, but when issues are complex or frustrating, customers want (and demand) access to live agents. In fact, preference for live web chat has grown in the last year. 5. Aggressively promote the fact that you want feedbackYou want to know when you get it wrong. And, make it easy for customers to contact you and get immediate access to empowered and empathetic agents. If customers can’t find a convenient way to give feedback, they may just defect to another company without saying a word. 6. Use proactive communication Let the customer know about an issue first and connect them to an agent. Almost all customers say it is appropriate for a compa ny they do business with to proactively contact them. However, companies must be sensitive to the reasons and channels they employ, as the vast majority of customers are not open to anything and everything.You only get one chance, so don’t burn the bridge by not providing the best agent and technology-based experiences your customers want and expect. 7. Empathize with the customer The first thing you need to think about when dealing with complaints is how you would feel if you were the one making the complaint. Empathy and understanding are paramount to giving good customer service whether it is in sales, customer service or customer complaints departments. Allow the customer to vent their feelings and then remind them that you are here to help them and will do everything in your power to resolve the issue.This gives them the feeling that you see them as more than just a number on a system and can act to calm the customer down especially if it is a difficult or challenging si tuation. The fact that you are offering to help them goes a long way to calming them down initially and if you can minimise passing them from department to department this will also help them to remain calm and listen to any options you put forward. Base the discussions with the customer on facts, don’t let emotion drive the conversation. Ian Jensen, Team Manager, RESPONSE  (www. response-uk. co. uk) 8.Make sure you act on social media Social media is becoming the vehicle of choice for customers, frustrated by poor customer service. But these complaints can be amplified very loudly – particularly on Twitter. Start by listening to the social media channels. Once you understand what is being said it is time to intervene. This can also be by social media – particularly to try and find out a customer’s phone number – but would probably be better if it is by a proactive follow up call. If this is done in a timely fashion it can go a long way to diffus e any frustration the customer is feeling. 9.A complaint is an opportunity for the business to learn and grow As a business, every complaint should be treated as serious and the customer with a small ‘expression of dissatisfaction’ should be given the same courtesy as someone whose complaint is huge. Remember to be a ‘goodwill’ company. Be thankful that your customer is voicing their problem, but realise that they may still use your competition the next time they need your product or service. You may not gain their future loyalty, but use the situation they bring up to minimise it happening again. 10. Act on the new knowledge you haveOne of the most important factors in complaint handling is to demonstrate that the company has acknowledged the complaint for the future. Don’t stop at telling them that feedback such as theirs helps you to grow as a company – make it feel real by telling them how you will be raising this issue with the customer s ervices manager so that (where possible) this is 1) resolved 2) not repeated with other customers. Finally, after the complaint has been dealt with and is coming to a close, advise them that you hope that this recent situation hasn’t adversely affected their long term relationship with you as a company.Reiterate that you hope the compensation you are offering may go some way to restoring their faith in the company / product or service. Listen  carefully to the customer. Know and understand the complaint  of the customer and never interrupt him or her. Remember that they want to be heard and let the customer release any emotional irritation before saying anything. This could make the customer feel that you are listening and acknowledging the feelings carefully. Empathize with the customer. Repeat the complaint and confirm to signify that you got it correctly.Thank the customer for bringing the problem to your attention for  better customer service  of the company. Apol ogize. Reasonable and unreasonable  complaints  are valued by the customer that needs proper attention or  customer service. Apologize for the inconvenience that complain may have affected the customer. Explain the reasons or the company’s side politely. No matter how angry the customer is, try to remain calm and patient while you address the complain properly. Have a clear  answer  and give data if necessary to support your explanation. Take responsibility for action.Let the customer feel that the complain will be taken into action. Explain what action you will take to correct the problem. Commit to give feedback as soon as possible preferably with a given date to assure the customer that the complain will be handled immediately. End the conversation by asking the customer for other things that you may be of service aside from the complain. 5 GOLDEN RULES If you are in a business, you will eventually have to interact with disgruntled customers and the way you handl e the issue is the way you are going to be known in the market.Make no mistake here – a disgruntled client will always create a large damaging ripple for your image. Carry on like this and very soon you will be known as the company with the worst customer service. You cannot afford this or you will lose business sooner than later. Hence, you need to learn how to handle a complaint effectively. Here are the rules for handling  customer complaints  that will promote your business better than any advertisement: Respond instantly  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ when a customer complains, respond instantly.The more they wait, the more they get frustrated and hence, would be more inclined to be unreasonable. Do not wait for their irritation to escalate to anger. Respond to their complaint message immediately. Believe that customer’s complaint is genuine  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ one of the worst steps of counteraction a company can give is implying that the customer is dishonest or unrealistic. Tell the client that you believe their complaint is genuine and you are trying your best to see what can be done to help. Apologize for the pain they feel not for the mistake  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ the mistake is not always yours.However, the complaining individual is genuinely aggrieved. Apologize to the customer for the pain they have experienced. Saying sorry for their (customer’s) discomfort is not the same as saying sorry for a mistake that your company has done. However, when you say sorry genuinely, the customer is more often than not already pacified and ready to listen to you with an open mind. Do your best  to meet their expectations  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ one of the most important rules for  handling customer complaints  is showing that you are doing your best to help.You will find that the majority of people are reasonable in their expectations. Just knowing that you are making all the effort to help them will often open the door to negotiations on how to resolve the problem towards mutua l benefit. If it is your mistake, overcompensate  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ there will be instances when the customer is right. The service/ product/ experience/ was bad. If you are guilty of any such thing, the rules for handling  customer complaints  say that you acknowledge, apologize and immediately over compensate the aggrieved client.In this way, you are eliminating a  disgruntled customer  and appointing a free goodwill ambassador for your brand; for this customer will not stop praising you after that. CASE STUDY ANSWERS Divide the answer into 5 parts: 1. Define the Problem Describe the problem in the workplace. What is involved in making it a problem? 2. Analyze the Problem Tell about how you collected information for analyzing data: the process you utilized for extracting maximum information from the facts. 3. Generate possible SolutionsExplain the factors you took for making a decision: how did you get to the root cause of the problem? How did you identify the likely causes of pr oblem? How did you generate a number of possible solutions? 4. Select the best Solution(s) and course of actions Describe the actions you took: why did you choose these actions? What were the results you expected to achieve? Describe how you organized ideas into process flow and common theme and the way you monitor result. Don’t forget the risk management factors. 5. Lesson learned What did you get? What was going right? What do you learn from that experience?

Advertising in Schools: in Public Education System Essay

Throughout the United States, the faltering economy has drastically affected the employment and income of its citizens, consequently resulting in the deterioration of public education system. In our San Diego Unified district alone, it is estimated that the budget deficit will reach $80 million (â€Å"VoiceofSanDiego†). The lack of funding towards public schools could possibly hinder the attendants’ ability to learn and advertising from corporate sponsorships could provide the necessary revenue to close the schools budget gaps. According to the National Education Association it is estimated that 100,000 schoolteachers nationwide lost their jobs preceding the start of the school year, to protect the employment of our districts schoolteachers drastic modifications must be implemented. Plausible solutions are to mirror the example of Minnesota’s St. Francis School District who under economic hardships gained $230,000 from the selling of ad space thus protecting the jobs of their employees. See more: The stages of consumer buying decision process essay However, critics argued the advertisements might impede a child’s learning, this problem can be solved with ease by promoting brand names in our yearbooks or scoreboards that have little affect on the education of the students and would still bring substantial profit to our school. The selling of ad space in school buses can also offset the daunting costs of educational equipment and vital school programs. Our schools transportation system has recently made cut-backs due to lack of funds, however by displaying local sponsors, the profits can be incorporated back to the schools budget. Being that the target audience is passing spectators, the ads have no negative affect on the students and â€Å"School districts say it’s practically free money and advertisers love the captive audience school buses provide,† quoted ABC News. Averaging a rate of $230 per month, one meager school bus advertisement stands to make $2,300 in the school year where a majority of the reven ue goes directly to the school district. Sponsored advertising could benefit the financial shortcomings of our schools on all aspects; yet, criticizers continue to repudiate the progress because the advertisements easily captivate a highly susceptible audience. This detrimental factor can be used to the advantage of faculty and parents with constructive advertising. Endorsements that promote a healthy lifestyle and diet rather than sugary sweets can aid in the development of our minors. Similarly, ads such as publishing associations could pay to endorse books and other didactic apparatuses in libraries or classrooms that would encourage learning for schoolchildren. For these reason corporate advertising can be accepted into our schools without the apprehension of children being negatively influenced. These economic problems pertain especially to our district and plausible solutions should be exercised. Scripps Ranch High School can adopt these techniques to ease the budget deficit; envision our school advocating a sponsor s uch as KPBS in our library or even our sports teams exhibiting sponsored attire of Puma for the sale of ad space. Our school does not have to brave this recession with only cut backs it is time to raise our commission for a change, for the sole benefit of our school. Nationwide, the current economic downturn has forced schools to employ budget cuts and teacher terminations. Advertising in our schools could become an efficient means of alleviating the budget deficit and the extra revenue would go towards preserving the jobs teachers and other school programs. This source of unrestricted revenue is difficult to deny and our school can hardly afford to surrender more extracurricular activities. To protect the sanctity of Scripps Ranch High’s superb educational system additional income must be utilized and with minimal effects, corporate advertising is an unparalleled example of a money generator.

Alternatives to Incarceration

Provision of sustainable security in the society should be a collaborative endeavor between the government and social institutions which form the community. The government has a legal authority to mitigate crime activities through the criminal justice system, a factor that leads to incarceration. On the other hand, social institutions such as the family, church, and learning institutions play the ultimate role of instill reliable character and behaviors to members of the community as a tool for promoting social acceptable conduct in the society (Reisig, Cole, Clear, 2008). According to psychologists, the development of character traits on the young generation is mainly based on the surrounding environment. This is because the young engage in copying and adopting the behaviors of other in the community. Nevertheless, social institutions have failed in ensuring an environment that can promote reliable character among members. Such has been blamed for inhibiting the process of effectively fighting crime in the community. The author seeks to give a discussion on the question; why should we expect the correctional system to be able to accomplish so much when so many other social institutions have failed? When family, school, and churches are unable to inculcate law-abiding behavior. Why should we be surprised if the correctional also system fails? Possible solutions to the problems affecting the effectiveness of American correctional system will also be given. The American correctional system effectiveness The American correctional system has been blamed for its failure in ensuring sustainable reforming of criminals to reflective compatible character and behavior in the society. According to its mandate, the correctional system is marked with the responsibility of incarcerating crime offenders as a mechanism for instilling behavioral change from crime activities. Nevertheless, numerous research findings have evidently shown a high rate of recidivism into criminal behavior by criminals upon release from correctional facilities (Conis, DeLisi, 2009). Indeed, such findings indicate that victims from correctional facilities are more likely to engage in more serious criminal activities than before their incarceration. Numerous factors have been closely attributed with this failure of the American correctional system. First, the system is faced with the problem of addressing individual needs of criminals as a potential drive to committing crime in the society (Western, Weiman, Pattillo, 2004). As an example, the criminal justice system of American has received for failing to appreciate the psychological requirements of drug related crime offenders as well as mentally impaired criminals. According to psychological evidence, imposing punishment on drug abusers and mentally impaired victims serves no more than torture. This is because these individuals have their reasoning and judgmental capability compromised. This has the implication that crime offenders who have mental or drug abuse history can only be effectively corrected by engaging them in resolving their psychological problems first. This has nevertheless, been a major failure in the American correctional system. True from available statistical evidence, drug related crime activities are the leading source of prison population in the American community (Conis, DeLisi, 2009). In fact, this statistics indicate that an estimated over 40 percent of prison population in US is comprised of convicts of drug related crimes. Despite this fact, the correctional system has invested limited resources in establishing rehabilitation rather than incarceration facilities. Another factor which has been associated with the failure of the American correctional system is poor influence among inmates in the correctional facilities. The Federal Bureau of Prisons as the federal agency responsible for administering prisons has been quite efficient in appreciating the need to categorize prisoners depending on their crime. Based on this reasoning, the agency currently operates five security levels of correctional facilities in the nation which accommodate victims depending on the level of security needed (Western, Weiman, Pattillo, 2004). Such facilities range from low security prison camps with weak or no fenced perimeters to high secure prison marked with wall reinforced double-fenced perimeters and high prison guard to inmate ratio. On the contrary, it is commonly asserted that conviction and sentencing of criminals remains the decision of the criminal law courts. Just to be appreciated here is the fact that court trails in the nation are based on the due process procedure clause of the constitution. On the other hand, this constitutional provision bases its decisions on facts presented and the strength of defense given by the defendant in the case (Western, Weiman, Pattillo, 2004). This has the implication that such decisions are subject to error. Indeed, available information has claimed of numerous incidences of unequal conviction for priority criminals. This is because these criminals have been through the system several time and effectively identified the numerous escape loopholes in the system. Based on the above reasoning, the process of categorizing criminals in the correctional facilities based on court judgments remains a major setback to qualify security needs and mitigate poor influence among convicted crime offenders (Conis, DeLisi, 2009). This is because the process leads to accommodating of various levels of criminals in the same, a factor which promotes crime behavioral influence to first time offenders. Such is the reason behind the claim that victims of imprisonment potentially engage in more serious crime upon release from prison. Therefore, the failure of American correctional system can be closely attributed to lack of an efficient mechanism for identifying and group criminals depending on their crime gravity and required correction strategies. Over the passed three decades, the America correctional system has witnessed a high rate of increase in the number of prisoners held in its correctional facilities. This has no doubt been the source for numerous social and political concerns on the problem of overcrowding in the prisons (Meares, 2007). On the other side, overcrowding is to be blamed for increasing facility strain, thus leading to poor living conditions for inmates. According to psychological principles, character is build through persistent instilling of ideas in an individuals subconscious mind. This means that given long-term inhuman conditions imposed by prisoners, they are only bound top develop an attitude of less value for life and others in the society. In addition, numerous research findings have identified a close link between prisoner and prison guard behavior based on correctional facility conditions. It is no doubt that correctional facilities are marked with sense of authority from the prison guards forcing inmates to feel powerless and depersonalized (Wilson, 1993). On the other side, pushed against the wall, human beings are bound to fight back. This implies that the harsh condition imposed on prisoners in correctional facility is a potential cause for law defiance mentality among prisoners. Such attitudes are bound to be transfer to the community level by inmates upon their release, an element that negates their ability to respect law and order in the community. Social institutions as failures in inculcating law-abiding behavior   Sustainable behavior among the young generation is based on the influence brought to them by underlying social institutions in the society. This is based on the fact that at birth a child is purely innocent, only to development attitude and character with time. It is due to this reason why most criminal behaviors in the community are blamed to poor family influence on the young members of the community (Reisig, Cole, Clear, 2008). Family violence in the society is one of the numerous reasons for the failure by parents in promoting law abiding behavior among children. This is because such practices leave parents with limited time to monitor and address behavioral issues of their children.

Peer Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Peer Review - Essay Example Thus three are three broader hypotheses also under which authors attempt to provide a comprehensive view of how the individuals perceive adult development based on their sociological tradition dealing, desirability of the expected change and how it contributes towards development and finally the knowledge that adults hold of the overall development process. The sampling methods adapted were selective sampling method as according to author, the bias towards sampling was necessary. This was necessarily done in order to sample only those respondents who possess the rich vocabulary to describe their beliefs in more eloquent manner. This method therefore allowed researcher to tap the young and educated respondents however, the overall differences in ratings on vocabulary are reported to be minimal within the respondents belonging to different age groups. The overall procedures adapted to gather the data involved mix of the techniques adapted by the researcher. This included oral as well as other means of collecting data under the supervised guidance of the author. Respondents were asked certain questions for rating purposes and the overall results were than analyzed by the authors in order to arrive at a final conclusion. What is also significant to understand that respondents were asked about the different sets of questions within a certain time period i.e. there was two weeks gap between the first and the second session for data gathering by the author. On both the occasions, the procedure was same i.e. respondents were asked to rate certain adjectives in order to understand their perception about the development psychology and underlying hypothesis. The results indicate that there was consensus among the various age group representatives regarding the overall process of adult development. Most of the respondents believed that the

SUPPLY AND DEMAND Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

SUPPLY AND DEMAND - Essay Example An increase of firms offering the same product lowers demand since the customers can meet their needs by choosing from various companies. However, a decrease in the number of enterprises providing substitute products would result in an increase in demand. The quality of the product is another significant factor that can cause a change in the demand for the Tropical Smoothie Cafà © products. An increase in quality would increase demand, and a decline  in  quality would lead to a decrease in demand (Arnold, 2008).Essentially, customers will always go for quality products. In this regard, the firm must enhance quality production to promote demand. Some of the factors that would affect change in supply include the price of inputs and the level of production technology used (Abdul, 2002). An increase in the  cost  of inputs results in the decline of supply. Essentially, a rise in the cost of inputs means that the firm has to spend more to maintain the same supply as it was before the price change. In this regard, the firm might not be in a position to meet the addition cost and, therefore, end up ordering for less supplies. On the contrary, a decrease in the price of inputs leads to increased supplies. The level of production technology also affects the change in supply. Use of an advanced and efficient technology would lead to increased supply (Boyes & Melvin, 2014).  . Apparently, efficient technology speeds up the production process, and this increases the total output. On the other hand, the use of outdated and inefficient technology results in reduced supply. Essentially, defective technology is likely to cause delays in productions. The delays in productions lead to reduced output and, therefore, reduced supply. The quantity demanded can be changed by manipulating the price of the product. For instance, all other factors held constant, a decline in rice leads to an increase in

Designers handbags for women Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Designers handbags for women - Assignment Example With the passage of time, the designer handbags have grown popularity and women have shifted from just handbags to designer handbags. Both might be considered the same by many but for women, designer handbags are statement of their style, their unique image and their temperament. Designer handbags have gained popularity in different parts of the world including in Asia. Women are now more comfortable with the designer handbags rather than just leather handbags. Designer handbags are the first choice of women when it comes to selecting between handbags and for the very reason Luxurious has aimed to provide the customers with an exclusive range of designer handbags in Asia. These designer handbags offered to the customers are unique and different from others in the market and because of their uniqueness in style they are liked by a large number of women. With the potential of the market and increasing demand of the handbags (Venugopal, 2010), this report analyses the possibility of introducing one of the designer handbags offered by Luxurious in Indian Market. Indian Market is one of the most lucrative and highly potential markets for handbags (Venugopal, 2010) and therefore this report analyses the positives and negatives of the Indian market and how fruitful Luxurious can be if it introduces its hand bags in the Indian Market. With the increasing competition in the designer handbags industry, there are different factors that influence the consumers to buy the handbag. Design although has always remained the most important factor, but the price has also played an important part to encourage the consumers to buy the product. Luxurious handbags in India would be offered with competitive and very reasonable prices and this has been predicted as the main reason why large number of consumers would be attracted to use the products of Luxurious. The competitive price of these Luxurious designer handbags would be helpful in gaining more attention as women are fond of collecting designer handbags but due to the high prices many of them are not able to afford such bags. There are number of factors that would help Luxurious to be successful in India and some of the major factors include; highly populated country, demand of luxury products including handbags, purchasing power of India, and culture of India etc. Luxurio us can enter the market of India and it can open up its outlets in the Indian market and at the same time offer its products online as well. This decision is based on the fact that the purchasing power of customers has greatly increased due to which the demand for quality designer handbags have increased and the trend of online sales have also been increasing. Background India being one of the fastest growing economies of the world has much potential than other markets of the world. The women in this region are more inclined towards designer handbags than any other local handbags available to them. The rising income is another factor due to which the demand for the designer handbags is preferred over simple and local handbags. The main reason to select this region over others is the potential growth and opportunities that could be availed in this market. India is emerging as one of the developing countries in the world. The designer handbags industry in this country is improving eve n though demand internationally has been reduced because of recession. With the rise in the income level in India, more and more women are intending to purchase designer handbags. The market has great potential for designer handbags as fashion industry in this

Tax Deal (Current Event) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tax Deal (Current Event) - Essay Example e final, concluding section of the paper will offer an overview of the situation and consider the merits of the various positions and the probable outcome. In simplest terms the current debate revolves around the Presidents campaign promise to not extend significant changes to personal income tax rules that were introduced under President George W. Bush. Under President Bush two significant bills reducing personal income taxes were introduced: The Economic Growth and Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2001 and the Jobs and Growth Tax Relief Reconciliation Act of 2003. The chart on the following page outlines the impact of these two tax bills on personal tax levels. In simplest terms the bills lowered the personal income tax rate on the lowest level of income (below USD 7,150) and on the highest levels (USD 29,050). Those earning between USD 7,150 and 29,050 remained constant. However, as is often the case with government legislation the devil is in the details. The bills also changed the dollar figures around the highest tax brackets pushing them upwards slightly. For example, in 2000 one entered the highest tax bracket if they earned USD 288, 351 but by 2003 that number had increased to USD 311,951. Therefore a person who earned USD 300,000 in both those years was paying 39.6% in 2000 but only 33% in 2003. (â€Å"Federal Tax Brackets†) Also, under President Bush significant changes in other aspects of personal income, notably on capital gains. Capital gains tax is levied on the market value received on sale of an asset beyond its book value or purchase price. If an asset is bought for $50 and sold for $75, the realized capital gain (profit) is $25. Capital gains generally increase as ones personal wealth increases as it implies having personal wealth to invest. A person working in a minimal wage job rarely has large sums to invest. The exact opposite is true of a person who has a substantial income. Therefore, as a general rule, decreases in the capital gains

Leadership and management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Leadership and management - Assignment Example This particular report is based on a case study that involves a hospital trust that has been encountering severe problems with regard to its management and leadership at all levels, thus affecting the overall performance and effectiveness of the organization. A change in the organizational structure and leadership has been proposed where I being the Learning & Development (L&D) manager, along with the selected HR Director, would determine the impact of the current structure on the new changes that are being proposed, thereby trying to recommend measures to reduce the effects of such risks and impacts. Some of the major issues that are reflected from the case include the ineffectiveness of the trust’s leadership, management and hierarchical structure of organization, the culture of divisive inward looking, as well as the ineffectiveness of the doctors and generalist managers to deal with budgets and personnel. The new changes would include increased engagement of the employees, improved customer services, reformation of human resource management and development, and also focus more on the function of learning and development. 2. Impact of the Present Structure and Culture on the Changes Being Proposed: The Need and Positive Effects of the Changes: Considering the role of the leaders and the human resources (HR) managers, it is needed to be mentioned here that practices of HR within an organization determine to a large extent the activities and measurement of performances and decide on the styles of leadership that need to be followed within the organization. With changes in the organizational structure, leadership, culture there are significant effects on the organization and its employees that are associated with the changes. For example, for existing employees, adaptation to new organizational structure, leadership, HR practices and new culture become difficult (Searle and Skinner 2011). Downsizing and redundancy are two major issues occurring as a resu lt that has been in the case of the hospital trust in concern. With different work experience, the efficiency of work by the existing employees is likely to be further affected (Searle and Skinner 2011). As far as codes of National Health Service (NHS) are concerned, it is essential that all personnel can act accountably for all their acts and performances. Honesty is a major factor that every employee should follow. Without such accountability, professional standards among the hospital trust cannot be achieved (Code of Conduct- Code of Accountability in the NHS n.d.). With the case of the hospital trust in concern, it can be realized that an inward-looking culture that prevails in the trust where doctors do not find themselves being ineffective in dealing with budgets and people, thus not being accountable. In addition they consider the generalist managers as ineffective and look down to them. Such actions reflect very less chances of improvement unless the behaviors of the members change. However, as the new team of HR and I, together plan for new recruitment, the problem that can arise is with the negative performances of those employees who stay. There is also

Central Park New York City Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Central Park New York City - Essay Example The people of New York started airing their voices on the need of a recreational and a public park. It took the emphasis by a poet and an editor of Evening Post (now the New York post), William Cullen Bryant and an early architect by the name Andrew Jackson Downing. The two followed in demanding how important people of New York needed a public park by 1844. They felt the people of New York needed a lavish scenery similar to Bois de Boulogne in Paris France or Hyde Park based in London, England. It took long years of debate and disagreements about the location on where the park was to be erected before the actual building of the park finally started in 1857. The park’s superintendent Fredrick Law Olmsted and an architect Calvert Vaux won the competition on design to enable them with the expansion of the park under a plan called Greensward Plan. The park’s construction followed the same year and went on through up to the civil war in America until its completion in 1873. The Greensward Plan consisted of designs with 36 bridges, all of which Vaux designed, from a span of the Manhattan schist or granite and an iron cast which is lacy neo-gothic. A number of individuals assumed the responsibility of executing the plan these were, Jacob Wrey Mould an architect, Ignaz Anton Pilat a master gardener, George Waring an engineer and Andrew Hasell Green a politician, mandated with the responsibility of helping Vaux and Olmsted. After winning the contest, they went ahead and acquired the 843 acres of land in the city of New York at the Manhattan center, which is two and a half miles away from 59th and 106th street, and half a mile away from Fifth and Eighth Avenue. This led to the eviction of about 1600 people living in the swampy and rocky terrain as the legal inhabitants of the area. Other buildings brought down included a convent, a school, plants, shrubs, and the people residing in Seneca Village. Mostly African-Americans with an estimated 2700 million peop le in the village inhabited the area with three churches and a school. The members of this village became scattered all over the place and as a result, it led to their community became extinct in that area. The city compensated the people who owned land with an estimated average of $700 per lot of land. However, many of the people residing in the area found the compensation package to be below the property value they surrendered. The city planners chose the place because, of its unsuitable terrain that could not withstand nor allow the erection of commercial buildings. The terrain was rocky with swamps that to be turned into lakes, rivers and a reservoir for the old city. The ancient sculptures underwent improvement, enhancement and eradication to enable the creation of the park in accordance to the style of public grounds in Europe, and an appealing appearance of the countryside nature. To this extent, the planners Olmsted and Vaux came up with a plan, which included four transvers e roads, which enabled the carrying of town traffic below the level of the park. The architectural designs restrictions stated that, they were to be minimal. Only four buildings was the only one found in the original plan of the park. They proceeded to adhere to the plan of the park by choosing the materials used for building and made sure that the integration of the original plan was as

Karl Popper's theory on violence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Karl Popper's theory on violence - Essay Example He saw how Einstein had been critical f his own theory, constantly trying to pick holes in order to disprove or, as Popper saw it, improve it. This contrasted sharply with the attitude f Marxists and Psychoanalysis's who, it seemed to Popper, created theories and then re-interpreted them to suit any given situation. This first encounter with empirical evidence and its foundation for the proving f theories would lead him to his eventual way f thinking about falsification theory. Karl Popper argues that scientists should start with a hypothesis, or a statement that is to be tested. The statement should be precise and should state exactly what will happen in particular circumstances. On the basis f the hypothesis it should be possible to deduce predictions about future happenings. According to Popper it matters little how a scientific theory originate, it does not have to come from prior observation and analysis f data. Popper denies that it is even possible to produce laws that will necessary be found to be true for all time. He argues that, logically, however many times a theory is apparently proved correct because predictions made on the basis f that theory come true, there is always the possibility that at some future date the theory will be proved wrong or falsified. Popper argued that scientific progress required a ground work f structure and rationalisation where theories that seemed opposed to each other could be evaluated fairly and equally. To this end Popper created a scientific approach, called falsifications. He summed up the theory with the phrase "I may be wrong and you may be right, and by an effort, we may get nearer to the truth." Instead f constantly trying to find new evidence to support a theory, Popper claimed we should try to falsify them, and thus be able to judge one against another. In other words every possible theory would be able to be rationally and without malice debated about the different positions, and then choose the theory that cannot be falsified, or comes closest to it. The "best" theories could still not be verified or justified, but since they had not been falsified either, they would be preferable to falsified theories. The rationality f holding a particular position would be granted to the extent to which the theory is open to criticism (Norris Turner, 2000). The most fundamental aspect f Popper's falsification theory, inspired by Socrates, is that we have no way f knowing anything to be solid fact, and even anything we believe to be unshakably true could be, in the future, utterly disproved. Therefore we cannot approach any aspect f scientific debate, without acknowledging this central tenet. Popper argued that this would actually inspire further debate and progress as it allowed us to understand our limitations i.e. we had a base to begin with. He wrote, "We know nothing--that is the first point. Therefore we should be very modest--that is the second. That we should not claim to know when we do not know--that is the third." In many ways this is similar to Descartes effect on philosophy, with his central idea 'I think, therefore I am'. He believed that everything in our lives was really only the way we perceived it, not the way it really is. The only certain thing in existence was the fact that you were thinking, this gave philosophy a f oundation to work from; similarly

Wrigley Jr. Company Essay Example for Free

Wrigley Jr. Company Essay 1.0 Introduction In June 2002 Blanka Dobrynin, a managing director of Aurora Borealis hedge fund, considers the possible gains from increasing the debt capitalization of The Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company. Blanka suggests Wrigley raise the amount of $3 billion in debt of the capitalization while Wrigley has been conservatively financed and remained no debt at the end of 2001. This report is aiming to analyze whether Wrigley should use $3 billion debt recapitalization to either pay dividends or to repurchase shares. 2.0 Current Capital Structure Generally, firms can choose among various capital structures in order to maximize overall market value of the company. It is proposed however, that Wrigley issues $3 billion in debt. According to the trade-off theory, the optimal capital structure does exist (Kraus and Litzenberger, 1973). The higher level of debt may increase both bankruptcy and financial cost that lead the firm to go or avoid bankruptcy. However, there are several advantages of raising debt capital. Firstly, tax-deductions which decrease the cost of debt. Secondly, stockholders do not have to share the profit when the firm has excess, as debt holders are limited to their fixed return. Finally, stockholders do have voting right but debt holders do not which means the stockholders are controlling the business. 3.0 The Impacts of Proposed Changes The decision to increase $3 billion debt capitalization of the Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company by Blanka Dobrynin is to optimize the total value of the company. Firms are often inclined to choose debt over equity in order to use the tax shield. As the increasing of $3 billion debt in Wrigley’s capital structure, its equity value will increase by $1.2 billion due to the tax shield. Also this proposal of recapitalization will help Wrigley’s equity decrease by only $1.8 billion when they payout $3 billion debt, due to the offset by the $1.2 billion tax shield. According to our calculations, through recapitalization Wrigley’s total asset will be $14,459,826, which consists of $3,157,127 debt and $11,302,699 equity. In general, firms prefer to keep a higher level of debt/equity ratio to obtain larger total capital to increase the firm’s total value. But it is obvious that more debt means more risk and more payout. By assessing the spreadsheet, it suggests several reasons for and against the acquisition of debt. If the Wrigley’s debt increases, its credit rating will drop from AAA to BB, which leads to more cost of future financing and value of stocks. However, as debt can increase firm value up to a degree, we recommend that Wrigley’s find an optimal capital structure through further analysis of whether $3 billion of debt provides the smallest possible Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) for the firm. 3.1 Flexibility and Reserves According to Denis (2011), financial flexibility is the ability of a firm to make decisions and handle problems timely. Moreover, the firm should always maximize their firm value on any unexpected changes in investment opportunity and cash flows of the firm. In addition, the firm should prudently raise their capital in the good times to avoid stretching their capabilities too far, and in order to preserve their ability to choose to either borrow or issue equity in future times of need. Therefore, the lower level of firm’s debt, the more financial flexibility a firm has (Investopedia, 2014). Due to that $3 billion new debt existing, the financial flexibility of Wrigley will decline; this financial activity leads to lower ability to borrow money in the future if there are any profitable investment opportunities or any unexpected internal or external shocks. 3.2 The Book and Market Price per Share As is visible from the Appendix One, the decision of how to use the funds raised through debt is an important one as it will impact both the price per share and the book value per share. The price per share will decrease to $48.63 if the debt raised is used to pay out a dividend (decrease in the value of equity), whereas the price per share will increase to $61.53 if it is used to repurchase shares. However, the issuance of debt can have signalling effects for investors. Generally, when firms issue debt it signals to investors that the firm is in a good financial situation as the firm is able to undertake repayments of future interest. Furthermore, the clientele effect can impact the stock price because it assumes that the investors are attracted to the company for its policies and when these change the investors will react and adjust their stock accordingly (Moles Terry, 2005). In addition to this, the issuance of debt and repurchase of stock could signal to investors that managers believe the stock in undervalued. Despite this change in price, the Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC) will give a more accurate representation of what the change in capital structure implies for the firm, by taking account the costs of debt. 3.3 Weighted Average Cost of Capital Before recapitalisation Wrigley’s WACC was equal to it’s cost of equity (ke), which was calculated at 10.95%. After capitalisation it was found that Wrigley’s WACC decreased to 10.29%. This follows the general pattern of increasing debt resulting in a lower WACC. The cost of debt (kd) rate of 13% was used after we assessed the key industrial financial ratios and compared  them with that of Wrigley’s (See Appendix 2) to conclude that it was in the range between the BB rate of 12.753% and B 14.663% (see Appendices 3 4). Although WACC has decreased, which means that every $1 that Wrigley raises in capital from investors it must pay at least $10.30 in return, it’s Beta has increased from 0.75 to 0.87. This means that Wrigley’s investment is still less volatile than the market, but it has become more in line with the market after recapitalisation. However Beta will not incorporate the risk of financial distress that becomes present once Wrigley have taken out the debt. 4.0 Conclusions and Recommendations Therefore, from our analysis we know that an increase in debt can have adverse affects on flexibility and can have costs associated such as bankruptcy, agency and distress costs, however, due to the tax shield affects and the decrease in WACC we believe there should an increase in the level of debt. In addition, the share price change is not consistent with the change in WACC and it could be assumed that the distress costs associated with the increase in debt would mean the price would actually remain relatively steady to reflect the negligible change. We recommend that Wrigley issue $3 billion of debt in the form of share repurchase plan because this scenario has no defining impact upon WACC – slightly decreasing from 10.95% to 10.29%, and as a company’s main goal is to increase its’ shareholders value. Furthermore there are fewer risks in terms of clientele effect and signalling effect, while also allowing the Wrigley family to maintain their control with their high portion of shares. However, we recommend further analysis to determine what is the optimal level of debt by finding the lowest possible WACC, and therefore maximising the company’s value. 5.0 Reference List DeAngelo, H., DeAngelo, L., Whited T.M., (2011) Capital structure dynamics and transitory debt. Journal of Financial Economics, 99, 235–261. Denis, D J. (2011) Financial flexibility and corporate liquidity. Journal of Corporate Finance, 17(3), 667-674. Franco Modigliani; Merton H. Miller . (Jun., 1958) The American Economic Review, Vol. 48, No. 3. , pp. 261-297. Investopedia. (2014). Complete Guide To Corporate Finance. Retrieved from http://www.investopedia.com/walkthrough/corporate-finance/5/capital-structure/capital-structure.aspx Investopedia (2014). Optimal Capital Structure. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/o/optimal-capital-structure.asp. [Last Accessed 19 Aug 2014]. Kraus, A. and R. Litzenberger (1973). A State-Preference model of optimal financial leverage. Journal of Finance, Vol. 28, pp. 911-922. Moles, P., Terry, N. (2005). Clientele effect. The Handbook of International Finance Terms. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordreference.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/view/10.1093/acref/9780198294818.001.0001/acref-9780198294818-e-1351 Myers, S.C. (2001). Capital structure. Journal of Economic Perspective, Vol. 15, pp. 81-102. Tsuji, C. (2012) A discussion on the signalling hypothesis of dividend poilcy. The Open Business Journal, 5, 1-7. Retrieved from http://benthamopen.com/tobj/articles/V005/1TOBJ.pdf

Child Labor Paper Essay Example for Free

Child Labor Paper Essay Child labor reached new heights during the Industrial Revolution. Due to this, it lead to an increase in the â€Å"percentage of children ten to fifteen years of age who were gainfully employed. Although the official figure of 1.75 million significantly understates the true number, it indicates that at least 18 percent of these children were employed in 1900. In southern cotton mills, 25 percent of the employees were below the age of fifteen, with half of these children below age twelve† (History). Businesses forced children to work excessive hours in dangerous factory conditions with minimal payment. At an attempt to combat child labor a few steps were taken. The creation of new technologic machinery limited the need for children to fulfill tasks. In addition, businesses required higher levels of education in order to be even considered for the job. Congress created the child labor law in 1938 as another way to combat this issue. Although child labor has mostly been eliminated it still poses a problem in other areas throughout the world, especially in developing countries. For example, in China children between the ages of 5 and 17 are being taken advantage of through what their government calls â€Å"Educational Labor.† This means that schools would have the ability to make their students grow and harvest crops, but instead most schools â€Å"abuse this law and they end up forcing the children to do a heavy amount of labor† (Sites). The ILO’s Statistical Information and Monitoring Program on Child Labor recently submitted their estimates that 211 million children, or 18 % of children aged 5-14, are economically active worldwide. The two major components of this statistic is Asia, which consists of 60% those working children and Africa, which has 23% child labor. Non-governmental organization, commonly referred to as NGO’s, strongly disapprove of child labor and engage in strong efforts in order to give the children their freedom. They view it as a just act and most people would agree, but they do not think of the negative aspects that arise when the children are no longer employed. As a result, the children and family members go hungry, since they heavily rely on their employment to contribute to the family’s well-being. Additionally, once the NGO’s shut down the sweatshops there are no further actions taken afterwards. Meaning nothing is done in order to ensure the children are taken care of, go back to school, or financially compensated. They simply celebrate the factory closing as a victory and do not realize the big picture. history.com/topics/child-labor sites.google.com/a/tapa.tp.edu.tw/modern-day-slavery/child-labor/child-labor-in-china

Tropicana Marketing Strategy

Tropicana Marketing Strategy Not many people know about the benefits of drinking juices. The core marketing strategy should be to make people aware the benefits and additional advantages should be highlighted. Surveys should be done to increase awareness among the people. This will in result help the organization to increase the shares in market and get more profits. Vision The underlying vision of the company is to become the worlds premier beverage industry and thereby creating healthy financial rewards and growth. Moreover they are also of the opinion to provide largest range of refreshing, preservative fruit beverages for health and well being of every household (tropicana.com, 2013). Core Objectives The core objectives of the company are to increase awareness of the Tropicana Juice, to inform people that the product is composed of 100% natural ingredients and to portray the product as a healthy drink. They are promoting health and wellness of the individuals and focus only on reformulation. The biggest advantage the company has strong product portfolio which is assisted them in developing niche business. Target Market Primary Adults: 21- 30. These people are more concerned about their health and are usually professionals. Choose nutritious diet Concerned about their outlook Dont care much about the price. Secondary Elderly: 50+. People who are more about their health rather than outlook Require solutions for health problems Concerned about diseases. Want a longer life. Channels for Marketing Tropicana juice has made use of print advertising as well as television commercials for years. These will be the channels of marketing for now as well. The advertising will highlight the benefits of juice and also show how children enjoy the product. Advertising The previous ads showed the Tropicana Pure Premium Orange Creations range of mixed juices, as the company was looking to increase awareness of products other than its orange juice In 2012, the marketing campaign came up with a new tagline Tap Into Nature. Tap Into Nature highlighted Tropicanas relationships with its growing networks and, in the U.S., says that its juice was made from 100% Florida oranges. It was big change for the company, which for several years had been using a blend of Florida and imported oranges (Berinstein, 2003). Recently Tropicana introduces a new marketing campaign. It was a crowd specific advertising campaign made of tweets posted by New-Yorkers. TheÂÂ  tweets featuring the hashtag #WorstMorningEverÂÂ  were reviewed by the team, and the more interesting ones are used and displayed in the subway, on busses, in stores, on billboards or on taxis. People would tweet all day telling a story about impressive that occurred to them in the morning and that Tropicana Juice changed their moods (Meeks, 2010). Web Presence Tropicana has a lot of web presence which shows that they are making used of the power of social networking sites such as Google+, twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn etc. Tropicana can enhance their web presence for advertising purposes (Grewal, 2011). Other media plan choices can be: Billboards Magazines Radio Core Strategies Their advertising print and media will be based on two messages: 1. 100% pure drink 2. Large amount of Fruit in Each Bottle They have selected these themes because they would be most effective in reaching their health-conscious target audience of 21-30 year-old people. The goals of their campaign are to increase product awareness and increase sales. Therefore, they must first increase awareness of Tropicana health benefits to increase sales of the product. Tropicana uses health benefits and humor as consistent themes in their advertisement to attract the attention of their audience. Sometimes advertisements are planned to raise awareness of the product, and some are advertisements that are intended to promote sales. The beginning commercials will be made on account of increasing the awareness of people. The later ones will be based on increasing the sale because it will be assumed that people are familiar with it (Llc, 2010). Marketing Recommendations Product Make clearer packaging to make it more close to natural. Price -Prices should be lowered as an increased price decreases the number of buyer from purchasing. Placement Expand distribution area. Keep product location consistent within grocery stores. Measurement Method The two major aims we set in this advertising campaign are to increase awareness of Tropicana Juice from 30-40% and to increase its sales by 30%. To make sure that their progress towards getting their objectives done is accurate we will conduct surveys before starting the plan, after each phase, and finally at the end of the campaign. The survey will include likeness of the product, purchasing history, how people are aware about the product, and likeness towards the brand. By surveying before and after each phase, assessment can be done to check their advertising efforts and if any required, necessary changes can be made to keep us on the track to successful campaigning. As we mentioned earlier, we plan on conducting post testing to measure consumer attitude towards the product (Laszlo, 2008). It is of core importance that buyers are pleased with Tropicana Juice and that they all view at it as a healthy and fresh option to drink. 500 buyers will be interviewed before and after each phase to make sure that the efforts being done is advertising for raising awareness and promotion is successful or not and if the sales have increased to the target level. A sales test can be done to determine the percentage of growth in sales. Using these measurement methods, we can know if their advertising campaign was successful in meeting their goals within the timeframe (Hephaestus, 2011). Keys to Success They keys to success is that store design will be both visually attractive to customers and intended for fast and well-organized operations. The marketing strategies are aimed to put together a solid base of loyal customers. They have created an atmosphere where employees love coming to work and can bring in good money. They are committed to providing excellent quality juices at all time. Conclusion The market of juices is increasing because the utilization of juices increases every year and it is also anticipated that it will be increase continually due people change the life style and more health conscious attitude. They prefer juices on other soft drink. Consumers want to drink fresh juices on a regular basis as they are increasingly adopting Western lifestyles, particularly the younger generation which is enormously influenced by the Western media.

The Defining Moments of My Life Essay -- Personal Narrative, essay abo

All of us can probably point to one or two defining moments in our life. Mine came when I was running across a rooftop with a gun pointed at my back. Something inside me snapped and I just knew I didn't want this to be my life. I stopped running. I grew up on the streets of the city. Each neighborhood has its culture and so did mine. Ours included playing skellie with your friends while your older brother is twenty feet away on the street corner selling crack or weed, or heroin. Do you know what hustling is in the ghetto? It's simply the American Dream for us. You see we're not so different. We all want the same things. Everyone wants respect. Everyone wants a home for their family. Everyone wants to prove themselves; it's just that in New York's poor neighborhoods the only thing young people see that can get them ahead is hustling. As a young boy I watched my older brother and his friends climb the ladder of ghetto success. First we saw them deal weed. Then we saw them move up to crack. We saw people treat them with respect. We saw their expensive clothes and hot cars. We saw them give people money when they needed it to survive. They were our heroes. This was our definition of a hero, and if you heard something else in school, it didn't matter. It mattered what you saw. What you experienced. I started hustling at 16 and I started getting into trouble. It was around this time that I met Rob Geis from... ...e street culture. Antwone left five children. James left two. Seven children that I want to be a role model for. Seven children that represent tens of thousands more that need to see that there is life outside of this neighborhood prison. An alienated person is a dangerous person. If they don't destroy themselves, they will destroy others. We have to stop the isolation that overwhelms young men and women, particularly young African-American boys and girls, in our worst neighborhoods, I ask you, the next time you find yourself in a bad area and you see a kid hanging out, maybe he's wearing a du-rag and baggy pants, please don't just be afraid for yourself, be afraid for him too. His chances are not good. The Defining Moments of My Life Essay -- Personal Narrative, essay abo All of us can probably point to one or two defining moments in our life. Mine came when I was running across a rooftop with a gun pointed at my back. Something inside me snapped and I just knew I didn't want this to be my life. I stopped running. I grew up on the streets of the city. Each neighborhood has its culture and so did mine. Ours included playing skellie with your friends while your older brother is twenty feet away on the street corner selling crack or weed, or heroin. Do you know what hustling is in the ghetto? It's simply the American Dream for us. You see we're not so different. We all want the same things. Everyone wants respect. Everyone wants a home for their family. Everyone wants to prove themselves; it's just that in New York's poor neighborhoods the only thing young people see that can get them ahead is hustling. As a young boy I watched my older brother and his friends climb the ladder of ghetto success. First we saw them deal weed. Then we saw them move up to crack. We saw people treat them with respect. We saw their expensive clothes and hot cars. We saw them give people money when they needed it to survive. They were our heroes. This was our definition of a hero, and if you heard something else in school, it didn't matter. It mattered what you saw. What you experienced. I started hustling at 16 and I started getting into trouble. It was around this time that I met Rob Geis from... ...e street culture. Antwone left five children. James left two. Seven children that I want to be a role model for. Seven children that represent tens of thousands more that need to see that there is life outside of this neighborhood prison. An alienated person is a dangerous person. If they don't destroy themselves, they will destroy others. We have to stop the isolation that overwhelms young men and women, particularly young African-American boys and girls, in our worst neighborhoods, I ask you, the next time you find yourself in a bad area and you see a kid hanging out, maybe he's wearing a du-rag and baggy pants, please don't just be afraid for yourself, be afraid for him too. His chances are not good.

Araby(loss Of Innocence) Essay -- essays research papers

Loss Of Innocence In James Joyce’s Araby the boys loss of innocence may be confusing and even painful but at the same time it is important . It begins his journey into adulthood . The boy in Araby is experiencing something all young men experience , the first crush . It is a time in his life where he is having new feelings, and trying to express those feelings to the object of his affection is next to impossible . Even the simple act of watching Mangan’s sister brings up emotions in the boy . To say the least the boy is overcome when Mangan’s sister actually speaks to him . He is in fact so overcome that he doesn’t even know how heanswered the girl . To think a girl he has secretly watched every day and shyly followed from a distance while he walked to school is actually showing him some attention .Unfortunately for the boy the attention is mistaken for something more than it is. As the boy waits for the day he can go to the bazaar , he thinks of nothing exceptMangan’s sister. The boy sees her when he is going to sleep , when he wakes , and in school in his papers. The boy wants nothing more than to see Mangan’s sister again , but ,in his mind for him to do that he needs to get her something from Araby. The boy is so charged from his encounter that he says he wishes to annihilate the days separating him from going to Araby and ultimately Mangan’s sister . Finally when the day has arrived that he can go to Araby he has to wait for Uncle to get home . To the boys dismay his ...

History and Tragedy in Shakespeares Richard II Essay examples -- Rich

History and Tragedy in Richard II      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An attempt to sort Shakespeare's plays into neat categories may appear to have its benefits when striving to understand his work, but even a superficial reading of Richard II indicates that this approach is largely futile and sometimes misleading. While it cannot be doubted that the play is of a historical nature, based on events recorded in Holinshed's Chronicles of 1577 and named after an actual king, a sense of true Shakespearean tragedy is also present throughout. Instead of trying to analyse or appreciate the differences between these two forms, it is more interesting to understand how they complement each other. Shakespeare vividly brings the past to life in Richard II, and it is surely the careful mingling of historical fact and tragic elements that is responsible for the great dramatic value of the play.    Knowledge of the period of history from which the play is drawn means that the audience is prepared for Richard's fate, for example, and this only serves to illuminate the tragic inevitability of his downfall. The audience is aware that Richard II is only the first in a series of history plays, and will be followed by Henry IV (parts one and two) and Henry V. In this sense Richard could be viewed in a potentially unemotional light, as a component of English history whose reign simply linked the reigns of two others. The fact that he was usurped from the throne and murdered is not overwhelmingly tragic when seen in the context of world history, especially if his reign is being viewed with cold hindsight. However, Shakespeare's colourful portrayal of Richard and his fate means that the audience can in many ways appreciate the king in terms of a ... ...te history in a new, more colourful light.    Works Cited and Consulted: Eccles, Mark.   "Richard III on Stage and Screen." Richard III.   New York: Signet Classic, 1988.   265-78. Fields, Bertram. Royal Blood: Richard III and the Mystery of the Princes. New York: ReganBooks, 1998. Hallett, Charles A. and Elaine S. Hallett.   The Revenger's Madness.   Lincoln: U of Nebraska P, 1980.   (Epigraph) Kendall, Paul Murray. Richard the Third. New York: Norton, 1983. - - - . Richard III: The Great Debate. New York: Norton, 1992. Ornstein, Richard.   "Richard III."   Richard III.   New York: Signet Classic, 1988.   239-264. Shakespeare, William. Richard III. The Norton Shakespeare. Ed. Stephen Greenblatt. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, 1997 Spivack, Charlotte.   The Comedy of Evil on Shakespeare's Stage.   London: Associated UPs, 1978.

Competency Statement III Complete Essay

To support social and emotional development and to provide positive guidance. SELF I will support each child’s social and emotional development and provide positive guidance to teach them to learn their own self-worth and self-value: By using positive reinforcement to build up each child’s self-esteem By giving pats on the back and hugs to comfort and help each child feel emotionally secure By making sure I am always pleasant and smiling at the children during times of play or teaching, making them feel of value By loving each child and never allowing partiality, I will teach them their value as individuals I believe that every person/child deserves the right to have self-esteem; I believe that this leads us to become much more stable emotionally and socially. I will achieve this by treating each child with respect; listening to each as an individual, taking their feelings seriously, and including each child as a valuable person during group times. My goal is to have a positive attitude at all times, so that I can be an example by my actions. SOCIAL I will support the social and emotional development and provide positive guidance to each child, by giving them the tools they need to develop their social psyche to become productive citizens: By using self-control at all times, I will teach each child appropriate behavior By listening to and respecting all of the children and adults in our environment, I will teach each child to listen to others By modeling  appropriate emotional skills in showing genuine concern for the well-being of others, I will teach each child empathy and forgiveness As teachers of young children, we must help each child in their social development. Part of achieving this goal is to make sure the children interact with each of the other throughout the day; I will achieve this by planning activities where the children can mingle and have different friends at each station. I will also make sure that everyone participates in whole class games and other fun activities that promote teamwork. I will make sure that I am a good example by communicating and being friendly with each child’s parent/care-giver. GUIDANCE I will support the social and emotional development and provide positive guidance by educating children in learning how to make decisions that lead to self-control and self-discipline: By giving positive encouragement for each endeavor, I will encourage them to succeed By demonstrating how to perform a skill with slow and simple directions, I will teach them that they can do anything By being alert to the needs of each child, I can ensure that each child learns to be independent I will use kind body language to direct a child towards the desired behavior I will provide assistance geared towards helping each child reach their full potential. I will work with other staff and parents to set goals for each child. I believe that persistent positive guidance will help each child reach their desired outcomes. Training up children in learning how to navigate life. CSIIIa: I support the development of a child’s positive self-concept and growing social/emotional skills by making sure they feel safe and loved. In giving value to each child’s opinion and by listening to their concerns, they will feel self-worth and be better equipped to value someone else’s opinion; then I gently guide them to understand why a rule must be followed, teaching  compliance. I use consistency in my requirements, which provides them with specific boundaries and teaches them self-control because they understand the consequence of self-actions. Knowing that they are valued helps their self-concept to bloom, and leads to self-confidence and self-worth. A child who feels accepted and loved can slowly learn the social and emotional skills they need. CSIIIb: My philosophy in guiding a young child’s positive behavior is to be a friendly positive influence, giving them lots of love and understanding. I believe that positive reinforcement leads to better behavior in a child; they desire to please the care-giver who makes them feel wanted and valued. My mother guided me this way as a child, and I have used it in my work with children with great success. In several cases where a child, in my care, has repeated challenging behavior, I learned to ignore that behavior, but give attention for good behavior; these children respond to the positive reinforcement and become my helper and learn to improve their social skills.

Korean confucianism

Confucianism is defined as an intellectual, political, and religious tradition, or school of though, that developed a clear-cut identity in the 5th blow BC from the teachings of Chinese philosopher Confucius (Confucianism, 2005). It began in chinaware and is now widely accepted in different parts of Asia such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam (Confucianism, 2005).There are tail fin chaste disciplines which are consecraten to govern the five human relationships. They are as follows (a) jurist and righteousness should mark the relations amidst sovereign and subject (b) There should be proper rapport surrounded by mystify and son (c) Separation of function between husband and wife (d) The younger should give precedence to the old and (e) Faith and self-reliance should reign over relationships between friends (Korean Confucianism, n.d.).Confucianism has pervaded Korea and the coarse has been labeled as 1 of the most dedicated followers patronage the fact that it started in China ( Korean Confucianism, n.d.). In line with the foregoing statement, it is not surprising that I adhere and detect the teachings of Korean Confucianism. However, it is to be noted that modernness has also swept over the country of Korea and has changed some aspects of the peoples bond to Confucianism.I carry with me the value and assess for the government as the indorsement that has the mogul over the country. That is the reason why I abide by the rule of fair play and the policies and decisions made by the government. Moreover, I admire the relationship between the younger and the elder together with the responsibilities that comes with it. For the elders, I give them due(p) compliancy and for the younger, I carry authority and responsibility over them. I fascinate to it that generations before me and my ancestors are given respect both living and dead. In addition to this, the closeness of the family and the respect for the relationships of one some other is always borne in my mind and in my heart.ReferencesConfucianism. Microsoft Encarta 2006 CD. Redmond, WA Microsoft Corporation, 2005.

How does Peter Medak create sympathy for Derek in ‘Let Him Have it’ Essay

Peter Medak order this Film from a truly biased tiptop of view. He presents one side of an opinion in this case sympathetic to Derek Bentley though exact events argon not certain. At nine am on the morning of the 28th January 1953 Derek William Bentley was hanged at Wandsworth Prison London, as an accomplice to a murder which was committed by a friend in the course of a sousebery attempt, it created a cause clbre leading to a 45 year farsighted and ultimately successful campaign to win him a posthumous pardon. The Trial took place before lord Chief of referee for England and Wales, Lord Goddard, at the octogenarian Bailey London. Medak gains a lot of sympathy for Derek by screening his misfortune through proscribed.The beginning of the film indicates a truly somber atmosphere. Immediately after the credits we gamble a Blitz conniption with Derek buried to a embarrasseder place the rubble of an old building during the bombing. As an interview you soon realize that he h as suffered a physical, genial and emotional trauma which has left him with brain dam geezerhood.In the next scene Derek is four years some clock time(a) causing mischief vandalizing a shed with a group of other boys. The boys, however, are rumbled and managed to escape only when Derek overhears caught and, put in a difficult situation, experiences an epileptic fit.We fast forward again a hardly a(prenominal) years, the tv photographic tv camera moves d experience a corridor towards Derek sitting feeling concerned outside the Heads authorisation of the Kingswood Approved School he had been admitted to. The decision is make that he is to be released hold upially because of his low take aim intelligence, that of an eleven year old. The scene foreshadows what happens later from what is express you get a real sense that the institutions of confederation are much more powerful than the private in this case, Derek. Justice is firmly against him, although it is apparent th ither is nothing criminal or so him.Ashamed of what happened, Derek becomes a recluse and does not leave the house. Within his own world he feels comfortable exactly as soon as he leaves the he begins to limn his vulnerability. We then come across Chris Craig for the first time as he sees Derek from the street corner he is completely over dressed and it is evident he is a confident character, a tilting apoplexy upwards signifies this. there is a muscular contrast surrounded by the twain Chris, 16, tries to emulate and pretend to be a gangster with a strong Ameri suffer square up around the time of Al Capone and Prohibition. Derek who had very micros copper colorical contact with the outside world and has only dependable discovered a love of music. Their style and behavior differ as well. Despite Chris small elevation he constantly manipulates people around him and because Derek nave, he is easily persuaded. The scene in which the twain meet is set beside the train lin e. The sound of a train approaching almost builds tension and gives you a sense of resounding force Derek is up against exit you asking, what events will follow?Derek soon becomes more acquaint with Chris and begins to feel a sense of belonging. From being with Chriss clique he soon makes the connection that to get what he wants he needs money.It is rather scant(p) to forget Chriss age. In the next scene he is a part means at domesticate exchanging various objects for weapons. Because the film is set in a post second world war period, in that respect were a lot of guns around which made their itinerary into the hands of the youngsters. It becomes low-cal Chris actually uses the guns whereas the others in his class of his age do not. This is vital to the Tamworth road scene. As their teacher enters there is a high tiptoe shot looking over the class, showing the students insufficiency of power (authority).Derek is physically large and appears strong but is of a gentle nature .Derek becomes more and more snarled in the gang and is given a blue sky crown by Niven Chriss associate who, noticing his physically large stature, perhaps had an intention of using him. This jacket is however a light blue a contrary colour to the black they were wearing so this does send word he is still an outsider.When Derek returns home, his fathers suspicions are brocaded to the highest degree his whereabouts. Through questioning it is obvious he is not any good at duplicity nor does he act well nether pressure, he has to rely on his sister to help him.Reluctantly, Derek has to down the stairs-take a physical test so he can be exc utilise from national service, due to his epilepsy, as an audience you feel sorry for Derek as they didnt believe him. Despite his appearance Derek is shown in an organic close up as vulnerable, unable to turn out up for himself.Derek is excused from service and is deemed subnormal. At this stop Dereks self-worth is low and his parents ta lking about him makes matters worse. next this we see Chriss brother struggling in a feud with the natural law. subsequently seeing his brother assay to shoot his bureau out of leash its as if it is no longer a game for Chris and he is hardened by the sequence as his brother is destined to twelve years imprisonment. His beneficial hand man however is not aerated which leads you to think Dereks fate would be the equivalent in just such an occurrence.Bentley does try to stomach the lure of the gang but is drawn back, as he goes to see Chris there is a establishing shot on Derek to show empowerment on his part (he had obtained the key to the butcher where he had been humiliated a number of times). At this point Chris appears at his weakest. We are reminded of his adolescence wearing his PJswith toy cars and a gun on his bedside table.Derek and the gang join forces once again the camera lingers on Derek signifying that is not entirely sure what he is up against, whereas the cam era looks up at Chris trying to exert his power. By this point Derek is in a black coat like the others, perhaps to suggest he is no longer an outsider. Their plan to rob the butchers doesnt materialize so Chris and Derek attempt to break into Barlow and Parker (confectionary wholesale and manu featureurer warehouse) via the roof. The camera looks down on Derek once again and up at Chris as he shouts from above.Even at this point the two are messing around. In this scene the action is in the first place focused on Chris as he fires a revolver aimlessly into the air as the police arrive and detective Sergeant Fairfax reaches the lift-housing. In a pivotal part of the film Derek is placed under arrest but breaks free and shouts Let him begin it Chris which can be perceived in different ways but resulted in Dereks condemnation as he was said to have mentally aided murder. Derek stands up to Chris but to no prevail. The camera looks down on Chris as he exhausts his ammunition, he is c onsequently left powerless. Cornered, Chris jumped some thirty feet from the roof, fracturing his anchor and left wrist when he landed on a greenhouse. At this point, he was arrested.The next issue is the funeral of the policemen shot dead, Constable Sidney Miles, in the incident. The al-Qaida writing table of the time David Maxwell Fyfe is shown to say to the family of the officer Justice will be done in a vengeful tone.We quickly move to the trial, as viewers we are witnesses and not at all impartial. on that point is a whole establishing shot of the court room with the two accused looking small and insignificant in the middle of shot.The court system was in the main run and bindled by the higher classes but the justice is not necessarily shown through camera angles or office staffing as the greatest power in the room, under questioning Chris is almost in control of the judicature despite the enormous charges and the severity he still manages to cast doubt over the cour troom elders, manipulating. You continue to feel sympathy for Derek with a demur that seems to get weaker throughout even though he is as much of a victim.It is not at all surprising that Derek is caught by the prosecution under questioning and the trial begins to feel unfair towards Derek. The fact that Derek had a knuckle duster and on him used as evidence builds sympathy again as none of which were his but given to him by Chris. As tension builds, through sound effects and an positive close up we get a strong insight into his mental anguish as he struggles with his words. The camera pans around the room from Dereks position with his family solidly there in the forefront of the picture. The camera rests on Dereks father the longest as he still looks towards him more concerned about his thoughts and opinion even though the panel intelligibly depict their negative impressions.The verdict is passed by the jury with a recommendation of mercy, there is a low angle shot of Derek as h e is taken down. He appears disorientated and dizzy after the devastating sentence the picture gets darker as he is put in detention reflecting the situation. Chris is presented as a young boy as they both sit behind bars. After reading the home office psychiatric reports the Home Secretary refuses to request clemency from the Queen. This does make the efficacious system seen fallible, you feel increasing sympathy for Derek as we find out that the sentence is rarely carried out in this situation and especially since it was contreary to public opinion. There was talk that the trial was manipulated to send the public a message that of murder especially of a cop is unacceptable a point made clear by Peter Medak.The family only finds out the watchword in a slightly cruel way through a journalist. In the last confrontation between Derek and his family the camera focuses on Derek at nerve level. Once again he displays his mental age in saying will it hurt there is a strong sense of p oignancy about it.Dereks father goes to Parliament to appeal with a petition however they were not allowed to discuss Bentleys sentence until it had been carried out. In a birds eye view shot we find Dereks farther pacing up and down in a large space awaiting the MPs decision. By this point nothing can be done.The picture fades to the next scene where one of the guards is scribing for Derek in a letter, as he attempts to sign the letter we recognize he is left handed considered rough at the time and different, considering he is shown as very right sided at the beginning of the film. Dereks is shown to be understandably emotional but shows maturity, he had soreness but not the judgment. There is a long establishing shot of Bentleys street signifying morning which in tern is quite and peaceful.In the Penultimate scene the camera tracks down the stairs of the house into the living room with the clock on the mantelpiece getting louder and louder as it nears nine oclock the time of exe cution. The hie in which it takes place is quite dramatic on with it is a sense of finality.The story is controversial, because Medak has chosen a topic which had been familiar with the public not so long ago. The end sequence suggests that justice is a blunt instrument and the film in its sum raises the question of capital punishment the incorrect decisions, the dangers and whether it should be abolished.

Impact of Employees Turnover

A abstract slighton of deportation sw grow Author(s) Earl Naumann Re mountained beat(s) descent directger of planetary c eithering Studies, Vol. 23, no. 3 (3rd Qtr. , 1992), pp. 499-531 promulg consentd by Palgrave Macm light-headedan daybooks shelter uniform vision locator http//www. jstor. org/ static/155094 . Accessed 09/10/2012 0227 Your eng maturatement of the JSTOR enrolment indic consumes your credence of the wrong & Conditions of Use, consumptionable at . http//www. jstor. org/ rogue/ education/ astir(predicate)/policies/ ground. jsp . JSTOR is a non-for-pro perish unsp inunctt that stand bys scholars, lookers, and students discoer, map, and plant upon a un art objecticular(prenominal) throw a fashion of guinea pig in a swear digital archive.We riding habit make do technology and likewisels to enlarge productiveness and unsounded spic-and-span forms of scholarship. For to a greater finale in fundamental law or so JSTOR, occupy accomplish emailprotected org. . Palgrave Macmillan Journals is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, do and hunt entrance at to Journal of planetary line of causationing Studies. http//www. jstor. org A abstract forge OF dismiss dollar volume Earl Naumann* capital of Idaho soil University Abstract. m whatever an(prenominal) a(prenominal) detailorswhitethorn contri just noweto the exalted straddle of bear perturbation fingerd by U. S. ultinational mountains. The mark of this term is to cede a broad mold of the transit employee e trulyplacethrow carry throughby several(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)izeingthe sepa primp up lend factors and suggesting liaise tie beamages and races. The precedent come forths to collect al nigh(prenominal)(prenominal) film directorial and hypothetic implications. The volume of U. S. transnationalcorporations(MNCs) deport from an ab shapely igh perturbation ateamong deportee anagers, art icularly hen h r w m p t T comp ard o close to(prenominal) alien- order NCsand nationalated trading trading operations. he employee disturbance M ate norm on the wholey locomote in the 20%-50% seethe for banish carry-overs murky 1988 non-white and Stephens 1989 Copelandand Griggs 1985 Mendenh to each one(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) and Oddou 1985 tung 1988ZeiraandBanai 1985, although employee derangement ay m be as naughty as 70% for several(prenominal) firns, particularlyn minuscular veritable countries i Desatnick and Bennett 1978 Lanier 1979. The trouble of expel i disorders a heartfelt voltaic pile(prenominal)(prenominal) evidentamongU. S. -basedMNCs thanamongextraneous-based MNCs. tung 1982 tell that swage rank among U. S. MNCs atomic issuing 18 devil to leash clock blue than contrary MNCs. For utilization, tungs inquiry M ndicatedthat neverthe slight 3%of European NCs and 14%of JapaneseMNCs had overthrow grade greaterthan 10% of drive start broadcasts trance 76% of U. S. MNCs had perturbation range portentous that take. b t Although p starting beatcomparisons etween municipal(U. S. ) and compor employee overturn places ar rocky, transportation systemurnover ates come forward o be at least(prenominal)double municipal attend t t r rates. Expatriate disturbanceor discharge ill fortune typic tot admirery al wiped out(p)s all(a) any(prenominal) clayswho surrender or dispatch fundament to the U. S. priorto the completionof their judge strange appellatives. ome inquiryersontendthat expel S c employee derangementwhitethorn withal excrete up to a division or to a greater intent(prenominal)(prenominal) consequently repatriationAdler 1986 Harvey 1989.Conversely,virtuallyall municipal studies of disorder touch to the judicial separationof the employee from the cheekwith the o o t T preponderancef the studiesconcentratingn volunteer(prenominal)urnover. o illustrate, in McEvo y ndCascios 1987meta-analyticalal a check overof perturbationnd exertion, a *Earl Naumannis Professorof Marketingat capital of Idaho verbalize University. He acquire his Ph. D. from ArizonaState University. The authorwould aforementi sensationd(prenominal) to thankthe re chanceersfor their hunting expedition and contri yet ifions hich helped signifiw jackpottly improve any(prenominal) crudeideas. true September1990 revise February,June, September1991 & January1992 accept February1992. 499 500 daybook OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, terzetto back attitude 1992 xxiv studies involving 7,717 singulars were cited. away disturbance rates veer from 3% to 106% several(prenominal)ly tender class with a median(prenominal) of 22%. However, the subjects in the studies were draw from cardinal sort of generic hire out s categories including aerospace employees, pharmaceutical cientists, engineers, navy blue enlisted nearbodynel, nurses, bank tellers, and scur vy backup refreshing hires, for example. no(prenominal) of the subjects be instanter parallel to evict managing directors. If the arrogance sens be do that extradite managers argon to a greater extent(prenominal) sym railetic to idiosyncratics oft(prenominal)(prenominal) as engineers, scientists, and alleviate lectronic employees than to singulars such(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as nurses, enlisted personnel, or beautiful rail line spick-and-span hires, the normal national derangement rate is lotstimes(prenominal) liable(predicate) to near(a) 10% per annum McEvoy and Cascio 1987. This blueprint is consonant with the ordinary of 12% for 303 fast(a)s account by Mercer 1988. Further, overthrow rates typically diminution at broad(prenominal) systemal takes so managerial swage rates be seeming to be slight than the planetary h 1st figure. Thus, patch no real(a)ial re count embodys that st raight compargons disorder rate, the ostracize disturbance rate erupts to be at least twice the subjectiveated rate.The extreme deportee employee perturbation rate guides in gritty guide on and con staunchatory cost to U. S. MNCs. The unmediated cost associated with all(prenominal) banish swage be estimated to be ring by $55,000 and $150,000 Copeland and Griggs 1985 Harvey 1985 Mendenhall, Dunbar and Oddou 1987 Misa and Fabricatore 1979 Zeira and Banai 1985. T presentfore, the hoard up direct be for evict upset for U. S. MNCs ar so exclusiver risque Copeland and Griggs 1985. Additionally, the con unanimousatory cost associated with deport swage be estimated to be scour greater Harvey 1985.The verificatory cost include items such as decrease productiveness and efficiencies, baffled gross gross sales, food market sh be, war-ridden force-out, silver in in corporald image, and tarnished somatic reputation. season derangement is blue-p riced in interior(prenominal) operations, overthrow is patently all the tell(prenominal)tide much(prenominal)(prenominal) pricey and hard in abroad operations. ascribable to the comparatively naughty absolute a lotness of deportee perturbationand the associated costs, the servicemans-wide teleph unitary circuit literary productions has been punctuated with ca ingestions to discriminate the factors causation clog in cross- ethnic- al pocket-sizeance.The troika atomic get on 18as receiving the grea try oninterest puzzle been the survival of the exemplar dislodge manager Abe and Wiseman 1983 church 1982 Mendenhall and Oddou 1985 Mendenhall, Dunbar and Oddou 1987 tung-oil tree 1982, 1988 Zeira and Banai 1985, the under climb put in of transportation and cross- ethnic fosterage programs gloomy 1988 pitch-b pretermit and Mendenhall 1990 Brislin 1979 Mendenhall and Oddou 1985 Kohls 1985 Schwind 1985 Torbiorn 1982 tung 1982, 1984, and the tri ckyies encountered by the out-migrations cooperator and/or family smutty 1988 ghastly and Stephens 1989 scrap and specify 1981 Harvey 1985 tung-oil tree 1982. bandage these factors ar doubt slight contri saveors to the disturbance conundrum, bring of these variables in isolation or conjointly is credibly to invert in truly bluely attainment of the intellect of the conveyance derangement problem. The primer for the scummy prob susceptibility of portentous improvements catamenia from this bunk rate of look is that on that head atomic number 18 judgmentual lay OF expel employee turnover 501 t t umpteen antitheticwisevariableshat enchant he disturbance rocess. pecifically, onceptual p S c a feigns of the inwrought dollar volume rocess form prosecute to a greater extent(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) spatio profane p pproachthan that name in the outer usiness publications,and these b r i entices gullbeen in the main ali attend d y sequent esearchn ecesisal v b demeanourand makepsycho analytical science. enchantment at that place save been numerous drivesto impersonate the interior(prenominal) help upset rebirth, dickens swage i surveys surrender standard the knockou examination gobased on the frequency of citations in concomitantlitand on the number of attemptsto experimentallyvalidatethe constructsand affinitys. he place T of Mobley, Griffeth,Handand Meglino 1979 suggestedthat features of the administration,he various(prenominal), ndthe surroundingshapean item-by-items t s perceptionsand gladness lending to the governing bodyof office staffionsto full s fall or start out. The Steers and Mowday 1981 sit d hold added entreealconstructs of art line cognitive bidding take aim, efforts to turn the plateful, and non- plough diverges. In adjunct, he SteersandMowday stupefy expandedthe implyive t responsesto the line of products to include transmission line bliss, transcriptional ommitment, c and crease social occasione. The cheer, shipment,and pursuitof an w t various(prenominal) ould subscribe to to the formation f patterns o check or sp ar. Together, o these standards induce manoeuvre or invited overturn interrogationfor a decade.In that clock epoch, whatever(prenominal)(prenominal) frame gains vex normallystood the test of a posteriorivalidation. Thus,it go forthsthatconstructs entralto these gets whitethorn be world(a)izable c to the planetarynvironment ndhelp explain drive ou overthrow. y amazement e a t B theoretic odelsfromthe beaof usepsychology,this begin ttempts m a to court the criticisms of the planetarylit a great spilevoiced erosiveandMendenhall 990Kyi 1988Newmann, hattandGutteridge 978. B 1 1 These authors ave no innovativeorthythatthe impertinentusiness literary productions ften is non h b o mingledinto a theoreticalframe extendand appearspiecemeal and ad hoc.The adviseof this articlei s to presenta impersonate of shipping urnover ased t b on constructs entralto the Mobley,et al. 1979 andthe Steersand Mowday c 1981 stickers. Additionally,he depor disturbance odelattemptso integrate t t m t objectives from the planetary usiness belles-lettres present doable. By purb w suing a much all-round(prenominal) heoretical ascend nd recognizingthe comt a plex interactiveand retentiveitudinal set up, an improvedunderstanding f the o discharge turnover rate branch whitethorn pass. This improvedunderstanding ay m contri howevereto the give outmentof retentionstrategiesthat would cut out the proud turnoverrate.Lee and Mowday 1987 impartd several tenablenesss for the encourage of world-wide odelsof turnover. irst, world-wide odels m F m invest and categorizethe variousfactorsthat preceding searchhad blunt up to be authorised. Second, warnings lay aroundwhat anxietyfor observationalenquiry, consequently tremendous discipline on exploreers nd r educingthe pop offrenceof an a ad hoc enquiryagenda. Finally, exemplifications help managersthink heuristically virtually a broaderrange of pull ins of turnover kindathan concentratingon unmatchable or twain(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) factors. at that placefore,the mould of comportturnoverwhitethorn be of treasure to twain(prenominal) exploreers nd practicingmanagers. 502 diary OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, triad absorb 1992 THE feigning The fuckingonical rationale that underlies this posture is that the fundamental inventions associated with the turnover surgical procedure in municipal plazas give the sack be fit to regulate the dislodge turnover assist. Thus, the discourse of major(ip)(ip) constructs digress iterate the breaaffair proboscis of search where thinkable although in that jam is an absence of empirical studies of a pastiche of uncomparable globalist factors. Also, the model of comport turnover is connotativ ely orientated toward in- surrounded by to upper berth take aim managers.These transcriptional directs appear to be roughly normally delineate among expatriations tung-oil tree 1981. bit near of the constructs impart withal pass to operatives, the suggestions and tidingss use up a managerial orientation. The countersign of the model ( extraneousize 1) abjure f number bingle from the forecastervariables through talk terms linkages to the turnover closing. The term of invigorateds is intend to film the trouble of paramount motive in this turnover model. unrivalled- terzetto categories of soothsayer variables rush stock familiar empirical retain municipalally as creationnessness all valuable(predicate) elements of the o mployee turnover march crease enterprise/ lying-in characteristics, rganizationcharacteristics, tierce free radicals of variables conjointly and player characteristics. These bow an deportations floor of p atomic num ber 18ntage gaiety, payload to the giving medication, and function in the accomplishment of the establishments goals. These attitudes ar form with obeisance to the fire administration, and, since to the spiritedest head deportees ar signly transfers from house servant come outs, the attitudes birth liable(predicate) been suppose predominantly in a immanent surroundings.The carrys cosmopolitan felicity with, payload to, and mesh in the presidency whitethorn be moderated by perceptions of the travel way of life sequeling from the outside duty denomination or by the boilers suit aim of cross- heathen alteration. The extradites contentment, freight, and employment whitethorn in addition be moderated by the employees family web site and the familys overall rejoicing with the global get it on or by o the characteristics f the art modestto which the dislodgeis assigned.Collectively these factors exiting sound to the pass of gaiety, cargo, and familiarity with repute to the formation in the irrelevant date. repayable to the fathermental deposit of the supranational blood literature and the undersizeder constituent of extraneous charitable choice articles seem in booster cable melodic phrase journals B overlook and Mendenhall 1990 Boyacigiller and Adler 1991 Rosenzweig and Singh 1991, the special(prenominal) remoteist variables influencing expelattitudes atomic number 18 virtuallyly secret.However, these attitudes toward the organic law in the unconnected denomination whitethorn expiration in the oust explain the intent to channelize employers, stupefy with the comparable employer just transfer spot, or plosive speech sound in the outside(a)ist subsidisation. The throw outs aims whitethorn be modified by perceptions of both immaterial and inner(a) mesh resources. The determinationswhitethorn resoluteness in graphic search behavior, fifty-fiftytually con tri excepteing in an sign turnover decision. The turnover decision, even if the extract is to expiration, whitethorn number in sorts in the employees prank modelual simulation OF EXPATRIATETURNOVER 03 0 00c U 00 0 .. 1 I=- I z0 LL E 0 4) ll l la E L, k . 0 , 504 diary OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, tercet rump 1992 and locomote expectations and exercise goant carrying into action. A decision to leave whitethorn non be manifested for an ontogenesis time percent point and whitethorn go out in primordial(a) insulation cognitions. To advert in explain the evaluate alliances in the model, inquiry pro slopes ar presented afterwardward(prenominal)wards to each one word of honor. The stop of detail in each trace is for the al close part a reflectiveness of the populateent body of research.If research is unattached that suggests expressage kinds and the mode of entice, the propositions be comparatively detailed. If research is wanting(p) and the expected family affinitys argon based or else on visceral concludeing, the propositions atomic number 18 tell precise by and large. Also, although this is a model of transportation turnover, only a few of the propositions hire explicitly with turnover. The reason for this is that turnover is the behavioural issuance of a composite plant summons and the propositions enshroud the particularized causation relationships among variables. distri much than than thanoverively of these variables al depressed for be communicate somebodyly.However, explicateing the relatively indeterminate idea of turnover whitethorn be useable prototypical. disturbance swage among national operations typically refers to the separation of the somebody(a) employee from the firm. This translation is too sign up for the world-wideisticist milieu and moldiness be broadened to include several diametrical(a) dimensions of turnover since extradite tur nover a undecomposed deal involves transfers indispensable to the brass instrument. perturbation whitethorn be categorised as world-wide or internal, uncoerced or unbidden, and operational or dys running(a). outdoor(a) turnover occurs when an indivi bivalent leaves an plaque to try on sensible exertion elsewhere. trance this fictional character of turnoveris approximately super C nationalally, in that billet is no research indicating the frequency of external turnover as a ingredient of make sense transportation turnover. By any legal community, external turnover is expensive and runs in bring d let curt efficiency, at the genuinely least. immanent turnover occurs when an indivi triple changes positions only when rest in the resembling firm. This item is seemingly to a greater extent than(prenominal) vernacular in remote operations than in interior(prenominal) help help help functions tung tree 1984. basically this occurs when an ca rry manager is transferred back to the U. S. or some some new(prenominal) multinationallocation. look into has indicated that to a greater extent oust managers visualize the repatriation do much much nerve-racking and frustrating than the sign expatriationand repatriation throws whitethorn be a stir of later(prenominal) turnover Adler 1980 Harvey 1989. Also, much expatriations whitethorn discover an function to set off plot on unlike designation and view the transfer sign of the zodiac as simply an negociate tone of voice to leave the firm Harvey 1989. upset whitethorn in like manner be intended or in instinctive (from the employees viewpoint). impulsive turnover occurs when the employee cease or requests and receives a transfer.In un agonistic turnover occurs when an employee is fired or transferred at the leave of the musical arrangement. By integratingthese patterns, a quaternion- carrelledmatrix fundament be demonstrable (Figure 2). Th e turnover models of Mobley, et al. 1979 and Steers and Mowday conceptual molding OF EXPATRIATETURNOVER 505 r 1981 and much of the resultant root word(prenominal)turnover esearchin giving medicational behavior and applied psychology concentrateon carrell 1, voluntary external turnover,and to a littleer pointedness, on cellular phone 2, un giveingexternal f turnover. The irrelevant usiness literature ocuses earlieron cells 3 b i a and4, voluntary ndinvoluntarynternal urnover, ith poor or no diaphanousion. t e truly olive-sized freshsin the outside(a) usiness literature xists of cell 2, b involuntaryexternal turnover,or cell 1, voluntaryexternal turnover. The model presentedhere impart impose to a greater extent than a lot than not to all intravenous feeding oddballs of turnover. f plot of ground the model is conceptually around get hold ofor both types of voluntary turnover,the model likewise has implicationsfor both types of involuntary w turnover. h e implicationsor the varioustypes of turnover ill be turn to T f in subsequentsections of this article. upset whitethorn too be conceptualizedas usefulor dys exiting(a)to the firm. Functionalumoveris typicallyviewed as expertto the administration. t An example big businessman be when a menial- perform oust surrenders or is fired, t t indeed creatingan luck o cater the position with a much than than suitable indit vi ternaryfold. other(prenominal)exampleof in operation(p) urnover ightbe the internaltransfer m and/or promotionof a steep- perform xpatriate. on that point appearsto be a e darkened side of functional turnoverthat whitethorn be substantially overlooked. When a t first performing comport eaves the presidency, he plainlyton ay be l m he cheek s a resultof the individualsnability o in frame a t viewedby i o make the cross- ethnic djustment r as a result of fel mild or family proba lems tung-oil tree 1982. However, it appears belike that the be ingest of abject accomplishment whitethorn be mistakes make by the organic lawin umpteen a(prenominal) cases. To illustrate,the alternative criteriafor dislodgemanagers whitethorn be in suspend, expatriation raininginadequate or non make itent),the dividing line whitethorn be severely t ( designed, the instruction executionexpectationsunreasonable,or the mathematical operation W idea rocessinadequate. hilethe bear ay be a low per designer, p m he low surgical operation ay be imputable to the validationsmismanagednternam i tional efforts,not the oustsncompetency. ennings1985 dry land that i J companies ar much the wooing of their proud turnoverrates receivable to poor counselling emergence and vilification of smart people. misadventure by the t make-up o use the readinesss verifyingin the world-wide nvironment y e b a the ousts manifestly crudesourceof dis propitiationmongrecently i a repatriated anagers Harvey 1989. If an acquitis viewed as a low m t t perforner, topical anaesthetic anaestheticiseing he micturatesof low performancesppears o be fundamental. a oViewing the sacking f a low perfonneras a well-behaved thing whitethorn, indeed, be genuinely simple. Dysfunctionalturnoverdamagesthe firm in some way by having a precious employee quit or requestan archean transfer. Dysfunctionalturnoveris just roughly as normally onceptualized organisminitiated y theemployee lthoughnvoluntary c b a i internaltransfersargon too doubtless ysfunctionalin the short tenn. d The functional/dysfunctionalonceptualization ould concord to all quartette types c c of turnoverin Figure 2. The point to be do here is that not all turnover 506 daybook OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, trine pull out 1992FIGURE 2 Types of Turnover volunteer(prenominal) (For the Employee) immaterial (To the Organization) involuntary (For the Employee) I set out Youre pink-slipped 12 34 national (To the Organization) wobble Me Youre Transferred is pestilential some turnover whitethorn genuinely be beneficial and undergo the brass section an fortuneto improve. However, since a hearty dole out of expatriation managers atomic number 18 signly internal transfers from a municipal assignment instead an than impudently(a) hires, the acquits atomic number 18 credibly to be proud performers in the internal surround repayable to the dislodges election cognitive exercise.Specifically, a managers domestic embrace track record is frequently a major factor in the expat take aimion process Mendenhall and Oddou 1987 tung tree 1981. Thus, it whitethorn be hypothesizedthat dysfunctionalturnoveris to a greater extent common among expatriates than among domestic managers (i. e. , losing prized employees). A elevate leg to the traditional glide path to turnover research in any case t appears incumbent regardingthe appropriate ime scene. Turnover may occur signifi ground breaktly after repatr iation but be ca apply by the globalististic make love or the repatriationprocess.An expatriatemanager may wrick disillusion age on the worldwideist assignment and truly hypothecate an invention to quit Adler 1986. However, the expatriate may simply intestine it out until b transferred ack to the U. S. , and a wise suppose is lay down. Alternatively, a expatriate may obtain let down with the arranging cod to events occurring during the repatriation process and later leave the nerve. However, turnover after repatriation introduces umteen another(prenominal) issues not turn to in the expatriate turnover model presented here. at that placefore, the discussion in this article is coifed to turnover that occurs piece of music an expatriate is real on the unusual assignment. The model does adopt a unimpeachably temporal dimension, however. Steers and Mowday 1981 spot that the objective to quit is normally manifested behaviourally inside a year and that the r elationship in the midst of intention and turnover after wanens. The reason that an wide time horizon is necessary in turnover studies is the existencenessness of dawdling changes in thespian attitudes plumping to behavioralchanges, a phenomen atomic number 18ferredto as improvement surmisal Rusbult, F atomic number 18ll, Rogers and Mainous 1988.Specifically, declining abstract theoretical account OF EXPATRIATETURNOVER 507 histrionattitudesdo not instantlyresultin the formationof intentionsto quit. For example,an expatriate ay sleep togetherlow directs of attitudes or several f m monthsbeforethinking boutquitting ndthen finallyormingthe intention a a f to quit. Likewise, an employee may bedevil low directs of attitudes,but the t lieumay improve,resultingin an intention o plosive speech sound with the scheme. Since the expatriateturnover ate appearsto be roughlytwice the domestic r ate, a assortment of anomalous planetaryfactors ap invokelycontributeto a gra dualdeterioration f acetifyer attitudesover a period of time for galore(postnominal) o expatriates. anyexpatriates ay shed substantiating attitudes ab initiobut graduM m ally develop more than than than ostracise attitudes. Thus, a longitudinalperspective is t beta o the model. t Regardlessof the type or quantify of turnover, he ultimateturnoverdecision is precededby prior(prenominal) ariablesand mediocreinkages. The soothsayer v l variablesof chore/ tax, brass, nd dieercharacteristics re the initial a a startingpoint in more another(prenominal) studies of employee turnover. trick/ occupation Characteristics Of the tercetbroadcategoriesof forecastervariables, cable/ toilcharacteristics watch standard the to the laid-backest microscope stage research assistdomesticallyGlisson and Durick 1988 sequence receiving precise minuscular anxiety globally. eceiving the R hardest guard as predictorsof employee attitudes atomic number 18 character equivocalness Teely, cut and Scott 1971 Lyons 1971 Abdel-Halim 1981 Bedeian and Armenakis 1981 and attainment grade Bartel 1982 fenland and Manari 1977 expense and Mueller 1981 Dewar and Werbel 1979 Gerhart 1987 Glisson and Durick 1988 Blau and Boal 1989.Thus, the greaterthe position limpidity and the more divers(prenominal) the acquisitions strikeed, the more apt(predicate) the surviveer is to be satisfied,committed,and involved. Additionally,the characteristics of fiber struggle, labor movement identity, and labor deduction encounter authorized abet as predictor ariables. It appears, at that placefore, hatissues tie into the special(prenominal) v t labor movement environment jackpot influence the gratification, inscription,and stake of computeersat a mannikin of governancea aims. l The whimsicalnessand dynamismof outside(a) nvironments ay get out both e m to more function equivocalness and designate course among expatriates.The erratic externalenvironment ay cause MNCs to adjudge less clearnessin theirposition m descriptionsas managersrequiremore tractability to suffice to changes. m in that take to before, ore government agency ambiguity ay exist whichmay mastermind to decreasesatisfacm tion amongexpatriate anagers. owever, afieldassignments ftenrequire m H o managersto use a broaderrange of commonplace steeringskills than their domestic counterpartsCzinkota,Rivoli and Ronkainen1989 Edstromand Galbraith1977. This implies that increased line of clobber sort lead contributeto a blue(prenominal) aim of mirth among expatriatemanagers.Thus, gambol/ tax characteristics ay get-go one some otherin theircontributiono an expatriates m t dieattitudes. Withone exception,these constructs enerally obtain not been g investigatedin the extraneous nvironment. e 508 journal OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, tercet send packington 1992 date close to of the studies cited in a higher place use domestic U. S. subjects, B need 1988 institute that usage ambiguity, encounter, overload, and readiness were think to the cross- heathen sort outment of Ameri fecal matter expatriates in Japan. The circumspection of Blacks findings was by and large un incompatibleiated with the domestic literature.A authorisationly authoritativeconsideration in the global pip is the law of e grapheme of the domestic and contrasted ruminates performed by the expatriate Dowling and Schuler 1990. If the exotic business requirements atomic number 18 quite comparable to the domestic position preliminaryly held, the transition and tend re revision should be easier. If the domestic and impertinent positions argon highly diverging, the expatriate mustiness coif to both a spick-and-span sour environment as s advantageously up as a raw-sprung(prenominal) heathen and physiological environment. Another commercial enterprise/ tax characteristic that may be of richness supranationally is the concept of organise mathematical radical homogeneousness. Althoughusing a domestic U.S. pattern frame, OReilly, Caldwell, and Barnett 1989 institute that aspects of hammer free radical homogeneousness were link up to the gradation of favorable desegregation which was opposely link to turnover. Since unknown influence themes in U. S. MNCs be lotstimes serene of U. S. expatriates, army kingdom nationals, and third estate nationals, a good deal of be provoke root heterogeneity is believably to exist. This mixture is in all probability to forbid the individual well-disposedisation process and result in visit directs of cohesiveness. The let down take of genial integrating may contributeto reduce attitudesthat would ultimately lead to increasedturnover.Work sort out homogeneousness may overly be conceptualized on a broader, more large instruction aim. In addition to the fit amongst the expatriate and other calling associates, the grade of homogeneity in the midst of the afield underling and recruit corporation may be grave Brittain and freecleaning lady 1980 Lincoln, Olson and Hanada 1978. The more equivalent the constitution and military operation of the armamentile reverse group to the rear, the more compulsory the expatriates attitudes be apt(predicate) to be. Milliman, Von Glinow and Nathan 1991 sh be that MNCs attempt to give way isomorphy to inappropriate subsidiaries as a implement of take hold and continuity.Based on the literature that address argumentation/ occupation characteristics, both domestically and externally, the hobby propositions were authentic. proposition 1 on that point is a confirming relationship betwixt skill motley, task identity, autonomy, and task consequence and expatriate propitiation, committal, and link. b prompting 2 thitheris a prejudiciousrelationship etween use ambiguity and business office staff infringe and expatriate gaiety, load, and pursuit. adv ise 3 The compass point of law of semblance amid the expatriates domestic and contrasted frolics is absolutely link up to xpatriate atisfaction, shipment,and link. s conceptual pose OF EXPATRIATETURNOVER 509 trace4 at that place is a convinced(p) relationship in the midst of civilise group homogeneity and expatriate satisfaction, lading,and interestingness. OrganizationCharacteristics Behavioral, structural,and demographiccharacteristicsof establishments withstand receive research precautionas predictorsof satisfaction, trueness, and occasion. Behavioralissues such as participationn decisionmaking i catch real sozzled stand up Gladstein 1984 Glisson and Durick 1988 moth millerand Monge 1986.Leadership onsideration as excessively authorizedsupport c h Morrisand Sherman1981Batemanand Strasser1984 Glisson andDurick 1988 Blau and Boal 1989. Dimensions of shapingstructuresuch as rudimentaryisation electric razor 1972 Hage and Aiken 1969, eminence Redding a nd Hicks 1983 Bimbaum and Wong 1985, and formalizationRedding andHicks 1983Child1972HageandAiken 1969 own alike(p)ly beenthrough empirical observation formalizeas predictors f attitudes. emographic rganizationalactorssuch o D o f as organization ge, take a leakgroupsize, andtype of patience ave trueweak a h upportas predictive variables. cotton and Tuttles 1986 meta analytic polish up interpretsa more comprehensive eview of these variables,and their r findings indicated U. S. studies differed from non-U. S. studies in several ways. In U. S. studies, an employees genderhad less trespasson satisfaction and unions had more influence on turnover. Satisfactionwas less faithfully tled to turnoverin non-U. S. firms. In the worldwidenvironment varietyof othervariables ppear otentially e a a p A main(prenominal). s Dowling and Schuler1990 say, a firms structure, ontrol c echanisms, and kind resourcefulness policies ar colligate to the evolutionary P processof globalization . ucik1985 alike renownedthatthe evolutionary rocess p is continuousas organizationscontinually suit to ever-changing strange environments. Although on that point argon several organizationchange models, the concept of organizationlife cycles (OLC)has been applied internationally Adler and Ghadar1989 Milliman, Von Glinow and Nathan 1991. As organizations progressfrom one present to another fouror pentad stages argon typicallyinclude) ( an MNCs outline, structure,and charitable resource policies as well study to change.Milliman, Von Glinow and Nathan 1991 state that change is necessitate so that MNCs open fire optimizetheir fit. thither is a pick up to optimize the externalfit of the remote subsidiaryto the topical anesthetic anaesthetic anesthetic environmentand the nourish ompanyto the domesticenvironment. hereis in addition a need to optimize c T the internalfit among the pargonntand outside(prenominal) subsidiary. Complicatingthe optimizationof both ex ternaland internalfit is the need for tractability collect to environmental ifferencesand changes. For example,Black, Mendenhall d and Oddou 1991 state that tractableness in the endure environmentis link up to aspects of cross- heathenish djustment. illustratethe vastness f these T a o concepts, when an organization locomotes more experient internationally, 510 diary OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, ordinal fanny 1992 the add of exercise conflict and government agency ambiguity may be reduced as the a s organization trategically daptsmore effectivelyto the alienenvironment. ( c m Also, the edition ay lead to a diversestructural onfiguration external sales doer versus contrasted sales office versus tumidly merged unknown operation)that could prove satisfaction, committedness,and closeness though improved credit line design. t uThe open systems approach sed by manyorganizationalheoryresearchers Lawrenceand Lorsch 1967 Pfeffer and Salancik 1978 Thompson 1967 d intelligibly implies that the personalityof the environment ictates the appropriate e w S structure. ince around researchers ould agreethatinternationalnvironments a t relative o the U. S. , thenmoreflexible, deconcentrate,utonomous ardynamic, T soldieryile structureswould be appropriate. his view of more decentralized inappropriatesubsidiariesis in addition conformablewith the sheertowardflatterstructures in the U. S. and with the trend of actorempowerment. Specifically, as a rganizations ttemptto become more innovativeand responsive,decisionl making authorityis a great deal forced to press down organization evels. plot these variables atomic number 18 intuitivelylogical predictorsof satisfaction,commitment,and e inter-group communicationand may be cogitateto a firms transnational volution in the been rattling subatomic empiricalinvestigationor international ontext, thither has c validationof these constructs. h readying ave accepteda good deal of attention a Expatriationnd cross- heathen D business literature. espite the rapidincreasein world in the international o e tradeflows in the pasttwenty old ageandthe tie in to mergence f international f e corporations, xpatriation rainingfor managersin U. S. multinationalirms is stable in its infancy. Specifically, in multinationalcorporations, readying a programs re in the mainsuperficialand incompleteor nonexistent. In tung trees 1981 study, only 32% of respondingfirms had formalizedtrainingprot t grams. Furthermore,he way of the formaltrainingprograms endedto be t c on environmental oncerns. Country-level rainingin socialisationand spoken dustup was uncommon. DunbarandEhrlich1986 and Schwind1985 overly rear t that the absolute legal ageof firms had no for anthropoidxpatriation rainingfor managers. i thatthe stateof expatriation rainingn U. S. multinational Tung 1981suggests corporationsis a major reason for expatriateturnoverrates in U. S. firms a being 2 to 3times the level of thosiery in European nd Japanesefirms. That is, the resultof underdevelop xpatriationrainingprograms ay be m t e thatexpatriate anagers xperience genuinely high levels of initialrole amtbiguity m e f P s and conflict which in turnreduces workattitudes. roviding upport or this t position is Black and Mendenhalls1990 review of cross- heathenraining i research. They renowned that cross- heathenraining s demonstrablely relateto skill t a evolution, djustment,ndperformance. t c An additionalfactorthatmay be an master(prenominal) ontributoro turnoveris the c t conceptof corporate ulture. Organizationsypicallydevelopa predominant, identifiable cultivationalthoughit is antiquatedly utterexplicitly Wilkinsand Ouchi 1983. Also, an organizationsculture can diverge crossways functional plains, abstract representative OF EXPATRIATETURNOVER 511 operatedivisions, or geographicallocations Gregory1983 Wilkins and Ouchi 1983. Since roughly expatriatemanagers atomic number 18 internal transfers or else than unfermented hires, the guesscredibly can be safely make that more or less i xpatriates ave been kindly corporate nto the p atomic number 18ntfirms predominant h culture. If the work group at the irrelevant location has true a strange and differentcorporateculture,the expatriatemay friendship enrolment c difficulties receivable to the different otporate ulture. pecifically,the expatriates c S w measure outandorganizationaleliefs may be incongruent ith the topical anesthetic operation, b hence decreasedwork attitudesmay result. age this issue is conceptually similar to work group homogeneity, fractional monetary unit corporateculture is a more p b training rograms. pervasiveconceptandcouldbe influenced y cross- pagan b hypnotism5 There is a operativerelationship etween dimena sions of a contrasted subsidiarysstructure nd expatriatesatisfaction,commitment,and link. t The moredecentralizedndautonomoushe conflicting a subsidiary,the more confide nt(p)ly charged the work attitudes. b prompting 6 Thereis a lordlyrelationship etweenthe quality of expatriationrainingand expatriate atisfaction, t s commitment,and closeness. b prompting 7 Thereis a substantiative relationship etween an organizationsstageof multinational evolution, articipation p in decisionmaking,leadershipconsideration,and s a expatriateatisfaction,ommitment,ndinvolvement. overture8 There is a corroborative relationship amongst the similarity of a firns predominantcorporateculture and local inappropriate corporatecultureand expatriate satisfaction,commitment,and involvement. role player Characteristics o Empiricalinvestigationdomesticallyof characteristics f the player produce o a c yielded fuse resultsas predictors f satisfaction, ommitment, nd involvement. PersonalityStaw and Ross 1985 Staw, bell and Clausen 1986, age Dewar and Werbel 1979, being distaff McNeely 1984, and chisel advance Coverdaleand Terborg1980 run through original weak suppor tas predictorsof satisfaction.However, genius Hulin and rip 1968 Steers and Spencer 1977, matrimonial side hall porterand Steers 1973, age Morris and Sherman1981, tenurein the organization Stevens,Beyer and flashbulb 1978, and educationSteers 1977 fool veritable starchy supportas predictorsof commitment. Age, tenure, and maritalstatus (being unify) argon ordinarily y w commandinglyassociatedwith commitment hile ageof education, earsin the comparable traffic, and alternative mployment pportunitiesre negativelyassociated o a e with commitment. Althoughmicro level contingencytheory models would repugn that individual characteristicswould be meaning(a)predictorsof 12 journal OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, threesome backside 1992 attitudes in different work contexts, at that place is evidently pocketable research that provides consistent heed in this area Glisson and Durick 1988. The level of performance of the employee is alike a possible predictor of sati sfaction, commitment, and involvement. look for has loosely back up the rivalry that performance leads to satisfaction Ivancevich 1978 Lawler and ostiary 1967 Sheridanand Slocum 1975. Therefore,an individuals performance level is by and large purpose to be tyrannically associated with satisfaction, commitment, and involvement.In the international context, a variety of worker characteristics ware been discussed or by trial and error investigated. proletarian characteristics postulated as important to expatriates are adept competence Hawes and Kealey 1981 Tung 1982, relative abilities Tung 1982 Mendenhall and Oddou 1986, and tenor simplification Abe and Wiseman 1983 Hammer, Gundykunst and Wiseman 1978 Barrettand deep 1976 Ratiu 1983. other by chance important workercharacteristics re individualisedityTorbiom 1982 Dapsin 1985 Mendenhall a and Oddou 1986 and security deposit for ambiguity Hammer, Gundykunst and Wiseman 1978 Ratiu 1983.Another worker characteristictha t may be collaterally associated with intemational conquest is the individuals years of previous international find Black and Stephens 1989 church make 1982. An individual who was abortive in a previous international ssignmen iiuld probable limit subsequentinternational a assignments. Conversely, an individual who has see mastery internationally may be more clear to subsequent international assignments. Thus, unreserved outpouring and errormay result in an expatriates years of international experience being constructively think to satisfaction, commitment, and involvement. somewhatwhat tie in to internationalexperience, particularlyin a specific untaught, is an expatriates lingual ability. The more fluent the expatriate in the language of the host inelegant, the easier the tender desegregation to both the work and widely distributed environment. Thus, linguistic ability should be plusly cogitate to work attitudes. devil other rather polemical types of worker c haracteristics exist, an expatriates sex and marital status. The bulk of expatriates are manful, 97% in Adlers 1984 study, and most are unite Black 1988.Since most expatriatesare phallic, does the high turnoverrate ca utilise by an expatriates gender, coincidently vary with it, or is it exclusively orthogonal to it? Unfortunately, this paper has not been empirically investigated in an international environment. Tai and Cateora 1979 remark that being a adult young-bearing(prenominal) expatriate can be a significant financial obligation ascribable to the heathen curve in some strange countries (i. e. , in the eye tocopherol, Latin America, and Japan). However, Adler 1984, 1986 and Adler and Izraeli 1988 sleep with that cultural bias against women in management in truth much does not take for to expatriates. heathenish views of women are often curtail primarily to women of that rural area. A woman expatriateis commonly viewed predominantlyas a strangeer,who in any case well-timed happens to be a woman. In some cases, being a woman was sufficiency of a abstract feign OF EXPATRIATETURNOVER 513 crust to be viewed as a confirmatoryly charged asset. As Adler and lzraeli 1988 creased, the overcome determination approximately women expatriatesis their exactlyness. tour thither are more U. S. women managersand expatriates(as a percentage of the nub workforce) thanin most countries,the balance wheel f women o anagersin intimately all countriesis low collectible to the same ecumenic reasons culturalsanctions, educationalbarriers,legal restrictions,corporateobstacles, and womens disinterestin pursuingmanagerial charges. out-of-pocket by and large to the scarcity of women expatriates, in that maintain is no information that suggests that women would charter more, or less, confident(p) work attitudesthan men. Maritalstatus has too received researchattention,but with heterogeneous results. i both(prenominal) authors ontend thatbeing marrieds a stabilize actorfor expatriates, f c art object otherscontendthat partner and family problemsare the guide cause of expatriate ailureTung 1984. tour some MNCs develop cross-cultural f f i trainingprograms or an expatriates pouse, the boldness s usually do s thatthe expatriate s male andthe better one- fractional is female Adlerand Izraeli 1988. i t o Unfortunately, he literature f the continue of maritalstatus is scarce so no directionof relationshipcan be supposered. SteersandMowday1981contended hatworker xpectations ay be related t e m to subsequentattitudes. Their discussion focus on met expectations, or the extent to which pre-employmentexpectations were by and by fulfil by note expenrences. n arguingfor realismin pre-employmentnterI i iews, Steersand Mowdayfelt that met expectations nd workerattitudes a were substantiatingly related. The same concept may apply internationally. f a I managers pre-international xpectations differ greatly from subse quent e experiences,an expatriatesattitudeswould probable decline. maculation expatriation trainingmay provide an opportunity or a realistic duty lagger, other f techniquessuch as preview trips, may overly help clarify expectations. marriage proposal9 Thereis a appointed relationship etween an expab triates tenure, organizationlevel, performance, yearsof previousinternationalxperience, inguise l tic ability,age, andrelational bilityand expatriate satisfaction,commitment,and involvement. proposition10 Thereis a tyrannicalrelationship etweenthe degree b to whichan expatriates9sre-intemational p expectaaremetin subsequentnternational tions i experiences and satisfaction,commitment,and involvement. a T t C Satisfaction, ommitmen4nd interest group owardhe ParentOrganization a i l Satisfaction,commitment, nd involvementare importantntermediateinkages mingled with predictorvariablesand employee tumoverdecisions. Because of theirimportance, hese constructs ave receivedextensivecon ceptualand t h empiricalattention. Models of employee turnover ave explicitly turn to h heirrole Blau and Boal 1987 Bluedom 1982 Mobley, et al. 1979 Steers 514 daybook OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, trine billet 1992 and Mowday 1981 wrong 1977. Additionally, over one 100 empirical studies assimilate validated these constructs and corroborate indicated the strength and direction of mean(a) linkages (see Miller and Monge 1986 and cotton wool and Tuttle 1986 for meta analytic reviews). Therefore, only a draft interpretation and discussion of these variables leave behind be presented here. play satisfaction has been outlined as the dictatorial randy state resulting from the appraisalof ones rent out or credit line experiences Locke 1976.Organization commitment is delineate as the workers salutary picture in the organizations goals and values, a willingness to exert goodly effort on behalf of the organization, and a unfluctuating desire to tarry a ingredient o f the organization Mowday, Porter and Steers 1982. Job involvement is specify as the extent to which an individual identifies psychologically with her/her job Blau 1985. Although these constructs are related, each is distinct ascribable to meter of attitudes slightly the individual (satisfaction), the job (involvement), or the organization (commitment) Blau and Boal 1987 Morrow 1983.For example, employees with high job satisfaction may regain substantiating or so their jobs over referable to fulfillment of personal take and values Miller and Monge 1986. For individuals with high levels of job involvement, the job is important to the workers self-image Kanungo 1982. Workers with a high level of organizational commitment intuitive feeling arrogant about their employer, localize with the organization,and bid to produce companionable rank in it Porter, Crampton and smith 1976. period these constructs are conceptually distinct, interactive effects harbour been shown to exist amongst commitment and involvement Blau and Boal 1989, nd satisfaction and commitment Glisson and Durick 1988 and satisfaction, commitment, and involvement Lee and Mowday 1987. However, satisfaction, commitment, and involvement mainly attendant one another as intermediate linkages surrounded by predictor variables and turnover Blau and Boal 1987. Attempts turn out been make to expose a causal orderingbetween these attitudinal variables. The implicit assumptionof these attemptsis thatsince satisfactioncan be develop quickly, satisfaction leads to commitment and involvement which are more long steadfast and long-suffering Steers 1977 Stevens, Beyer and risings bulletin 1978.Attempting to test this broil, Williams and Hazer 1986 prove strong interaction between satisfaction and commitment but could not infer origin imputable(p) to the cross-sectional nature of the data. However, Farkas and Tetrick 1989 utilize a longitudinal design but were otiose to identi fy causal direction. They did identify that satisfaction and commitment are differentially related over time, and the relationship may be orbitual or reciprocal. Therefore, the model presented here go intos that these variables are potently and positively related to one another, but does not assume any causal relationship.Since the majority of expatriates are internal transfers ratherthan new hires, the workers arouse probably achieved some degree of sociable integrating into conceptual sample OF EXPATRIATETURNOVER 515 the organization. Accordingly,the argumentis made that expatriatesstart theirinternational ssignmentwith attitudesthatare reasonablywell formua lated. Also, as transfers,expatriates ay move over reasonablypositive attitudes m initially. Althoughthereis no empiricalsupportfor this contention,it seems intuitivelylogical that a dissatisfy mployee would be an un presumable candie t date for an internationalransfer.The placefor new hires is more complex. While ne w hires plainly constitutea small portionof expatriates,new hires attitudesare probably more plastic than internaltransfers. Since new hires would comport teentsy i b t opportunityo achieve kindly integrationntothe organization eforedeparting for the unknownassignment, he local outsideorganization ould be relatively t w i more importantn determineworkattitudes. Also, pursuingthe logic of Steers and Mowday 1981, pre-employmentexpectations would be relatively more importantin shaping new hires work attitudessince expectations w a regarding oththe organization ndthe opposedassignment ouldbe clarified. Whetherthe expatriateis an internaltransferor a new hire, the expatriate initially arrives in the unlike assignmentwith some level of satisfaction, b commitment nd involvement. dditionally, ased on the domesticresearch, a A these three attitudesare positively relatedto one another. hypnotism 11 Thereis a positive elationshipmongan expatriates r a satisfaction,commitment,and invo lvementwith venerateto the organization. Attitudestowardthe Organizationin the hostile AssignmentThe traditionalturnovermodels of Mobley, et al. 1979 and Steers and Mowday 1981 postulatethat satisfaction,commitment,and involvement conjointly result in an employee formulatingintentions to ride out in the organization r to quit. In the international ontext,an expatriate anagers o c m a family status,the coursepathingperceptions,countrycharacteristics, nd the degree of cross-cultural djustment ppearto be talk overvariables. a a Thus, the employees attitudetowardthe parentorganization ay be modim fied to resultin attitudestowardthe organization n the foreign assignment. These attitudeswould still conceptuallyinclude satisfaction,commitment, and involvement,but the constructswould be more directlyinfluencedby the international xperience. e Supportfor the changes in an expatriatesattitudestowardthe organization in the international ontext is providedby Gregersonand Black 1990a. c T heir researchindicatedthat expatriatesare often differentiallycommitted to the organization nd local foreignoperations. urthermore,on-jobfactors a F n were importantly related to local commitment. These findings appearto f t and c rovide upportorthecontentionhatcountry haractenrstics an expatriates s family situationwill affect the expatriatessatisfaction,commitment,and involvementwith observeto the organizationn the international ssignment. i a 516 ledger OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, tertiary attract 1992 Unfortunately,the concept of dual commitments, or dual attitudes in familiar, has received actually(prenominal) little research attention internationally. Therefore, it is unknown whether attitudes toward the parent organization or attitudes toward the local foreign organization would decree in the formation of behavioral intentions.However, the model explicitly assumes that the expatriates initial attitudes do not breathe constant. As suggested by the high expatriate turnover rate, the expatriates attitudes for the most part cut down due to a variety of singular internationalfactors. Some of the factors were discussed previously at bottom the three categories of predictor variables. The stay curious internationalfactors of family situation, country characteristics, flight pathing, and cross-cultural qualifying appear quite important and will be intercommunicate distributively in the undermentioned sections.The assumption is made, however, that there is a spill-over effect between an expatriates attitudes toward the parent organization (probably speculate domestically) and attitudes toward the international assignment. Expatriates with in truth positive attitudes toward the organization in general are as well as credibly to provoke more positive attitudes internationally. Expatriates who be in possession of set down levels of attitudes toward the organization in general are credibly as well as to have subvert levels of affecti ve responses internationally.This explicitly assumes that each of the three attitudes can be theorize at a more macro level toward the organization in general or at a micro level that is more closely related to the foreign assignment. While the dual levels of commitment and satisfaction have been well identify in the domestic literature, it seems intuitively logical that the same could be said for job involvement. For some expatriates, attitudes toward the organization may sojourn positive while negative international attitudes may develop. such a situation may result in an internal transfer.For other expatriates, initially positive attitudes toward the organization may unload internationally star(p) to external turnover. Proposition 12 There is a positive relationship between job satisfaction,commitment,and involvement (with rate to the organization) and expatriate satisfaction, commitment, and involvement (with respect to the international assignment). Expatriates Family Whi le an employees family situation may not be central to the domestic turnover process, the family situation is obviously a critically important oderatingvariable in the expatriateturnoverprocess. Harvey 1985 contends that the family situation may be the most important contributorto expatriate turnover. Supportfor Harveys contentionis providedby Tungs 1982 research that indicated that two of three most frequently cited causes for expatriate loser were family related. Specifically, the softness of the expatriates family/ pardner to adjust to a different physical or cultural environment and abstract feigning OF EXPATRIATETURNOVER 517 otherfamilyrelatedproblemsreceivedstrongsupport. espitethe unvarnished D mportanceof the family, less than half of MNCs interviewthe better half in the expatriate election process Black and Stephens1989 Tung 1981 and s expatriation rainingfor the family is really elevated Black and Stephens 1989. t If a fellow or family memberis undergoingculturesh ock or experiencing t encumbrance in makingthe cross-cultural djustment, he morale,performance a and work attitudesof the expatriatemanagermay be adversely abnormal Harvey 1985 Mendenhall,Dunbarand Oddou 1987 Tung 1982. Since the majority of expatriatemanagers are male Adler 1984, the superior jolt of a foreign relocationmay be experientby the married woman Gaylord 1979.The wife may experiencehigh levels of accentuate due to a disruptionof i childrenseducation,loss of self-worthand identity,particularlyf she was previouslyemployed, lack of contactwith friends and relatives, and social or culturalostracism in the foreign country Harvey 1985. Furthermore, children are often resistantto moving, even domestically. The problems face up by childrenregarding ducation,linguisticdifferences,social relatione ships, and culturalvalues also can be the sourceof filtrate and conflict. Thus, the greaterthe numberof children,the more in all likelihood accommodation roblemsare p o occur. Also, fourth-year children such as teenagers are more credibly to have t unquestionablestrongpeer social relationships nddisrupting hose relationships a for an internationalransfer ay have negativeresults. contempt the observable t m importanceof these variables,there is on the face of itittle empiricalinvestigal on expatriateturnover. tion of the impactof the family situation However,as noted by Black and Stephens1989, the family situationis an e t intuitivelyimportant lementof the expatriate urnover rocess. They noted p t hatthereappearso be botha positiveandnegativespillovereffectbetween expatriatesand their collaborators perceptionsof an international ssignment. a w Specifically, expatriateand pardner adjustment ere significantlyand positively correlated, nd were relatedto the expatriatesintentionto stay in the a foreign assignment. steady if an expatriatemanageris very positive about the foreign assignment, a transfer pedestal may be the result of family dissatisfact ion. Conversely,a positive family situationis likely to upraise an expatriates attitudes and cross-culturaladjustment,and increase the probabilityof a productive foreign experience.Theredoes appearto be a say-so differenceproblemin evaluatingthe impactof the spouse or family situationon turnover. Attributingexpatriateturnoverto the failure of the spouse to adjustmay be simplistic Dowling and Welch 1988. Expatriatesmay use their spouses as scapegoats,ratherthan concord theirown failuresto adjust. This may reducethe negative callingimplications of an earlier transferhome. Likewise, top level corporate administrators may attributeexpatriatefailure to the expatriatesfamily ratherthan critically evaluatetheir own firms expatriation rogramswhich may be deficient. p There are many dimensions of an expatriatesfamily situation that may w oderate orkattitudes. nfortunately, ost of these variables ave received h m U little or no researchattention. Therefore,the followers propositionhas been 518 daybook OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, third gear buttocks 1992 stated very generally as a global measure of family satisfaction, which is undoubtedly a many-sided concept. Proposition 13 The expatriates family satisfaction with the international experience has a positive moderate influence on the expatriates job satisfaction, commitment, and involvement with respect to the organization in the foreign assignment. The more ositive the expatriates family attitudes, the more likely the expatriate is to develop positive work attitudes internationally. Proposition 14 The few the number of children that relocate with the expatriate, the more positive the expatriates work attitudes. Proposition 15 The young the children that relocate with the expatriate, the more positive the expatriates work attitudes. CountryCharacteristics tout ensemble foreign assignments are not bring outd equal. spectacular differences exist both between and in spite of appearance countries that can influence expatriates, and their families, cross-cultural adjustment and their subsequent attitudes.In many cultures, foreigners are viewed with intuition and skepticism. As a result, building social relationships with local nationals may be impossible. For example, few occidental women find the Arabic countries pleasurable due to the restrict role of women in those societies Thai and Cateora 1979 Dowling and Schuler 1990. As a result, some companies may select to select managers who are widowed for foreign assignments in the spirit that a mavin person will have few adjustments.However, many single male expatriates are socially ostracized, and they may have a more difficult social adjustment than a married tally who can provide each other coarse support. In addition to social and cultural factors, expatriates can experience dissatisfaction due to brisk conditions and wellness problems. A foreign oil political party decision maker with extensive international exp erience explicit his perceptiveness for having Americans on international projects because they were eer the first to get vomit if a health problem existed. The Americans were his miners stalker that served as an early warning of potential health problems.Issues such as these have been referred to as cultural temper and cultural revolution Black and Stephens 1989 Mendenhall and Oddou 1985 Torbiorn 1982. Cultural snappishness describes the trouble that a westward expatriate would have adapting to received cultures. For example, Torbiorn 1982 noted that westward expatriates experienced higher levels of dissatisfaction with assignments in India, the spirit East, marriage Africa, abstract sit OF EXPATRIATE TURNOVER 519 East Africa, and Liberia. Thus, some cultures are very different from occidental cultures and are also very difficult to adjust to.Other countries may have a very different culture, but are much easier to adapt to for expatriates and their families. The c oncept of culturaldifferences influencing the cross-cultural adjustment process is intuitively logical. However, there appears to be a lack of consensus regarding conceptualizations of this factor. For example, the terms cultural toughness, and cultural novelty, appearin the international business literature. Unfortunately, tightly developed definitions and consistent research operationalizations are generally lacking. Hofstede 1980 perationalized cultural outdo along four indices of work-related values, but most researchershave used a broader,more macro level approach. Harbison and Myers 1959 conceptualized cultural differences in stages of sparing suppuration and the role of the firm in that process. farmer and Richman 1980 conceptualizeddifferences along socio-cultural,legal-political, economic, and educational dimensions. Nath 1988 draw behavioral differences that included cultural factors such as attitudes, beliefs, value systems, behavioral patterns, and management philos ophies.Negandhi and Prasad 1971 evaluated differences in the task environment such as distributors, suppliers, employees, consumers, government, and community. Consensus regarding the appropriatedimensions to use in measuring cultural differences is lacking, but there is apparently strong support for the general concepts of cultural toughness, cultural novelty, and/or cultural distance. to each one country presents the expatriate, and the expatriates family, with a unique set of adjustmentproblems. The more divergent a foreign assignment and location from the home country environment, the greater the potential of experiencing culture shock.Indirectly musical accompaniment this contention was Beamishs 1985 finding that MNCs are more likely to be dissatisfied with the performance of operating units set in less developed countries that are likely to be culturally tough. The more culturally tough a foreign country, the more likely the expatriates work attitudes will be negatively af fected. Therefore, the pursual proposition was developed. Proposition 16 The culturaland environmentalsimilarity of home and host countries has a positive, moderating influence on expatriate satisfaction, commitment, and involvement (with respect to the international assignment).The more similar the foreign culture and environmentto the home environment, the more positive the impact on expatriate satisfaction, commitment, and involvement with respect to the organization in the foreign assignment. calling Pathing Research on the line of achievement value of foreign assignments in MNCs is inconsistent. The divergence may result from the fact that the human resources function constitutes the weakest link in the overall strategic planning process in 520 JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONALBUSINESS STUDIES, deuce-ace one-fourth 1992 most U. S. MNCs Lorange and white potato 1983 Tung 1984.Thus, many foreign assignments appear miry rather than part of a plotted process to develop certain manag erial skills. As a result, international assignments appear to be avoided by some high performing managers due to potential negative vocation consequences Adler 1980. For example, Edstrom and Galbraith 1977 suggested that expatriates often viewed the purpose of their afield assignment as development for afterlife executive responsibility. However, Gonzalez and Negandhi 1966 found that about half of former expatriates were in low level positions xv years later.Howard 1973 and Harvey 1989 found that a good deal of distrust and conflict surrounded the expatriation and repatriation process and skills developed by expatriates were seldom used after their return home. These results led Mendenhall, Dunbar and Oddou 1987 to note that the overseas assignment is a haphazard, ill-planned affair that is usually come with with vertical advancement. They conclude that the nerve impulse for overseas staffing seems to be more to collaborate quick workforce inescapably than to create an integrated public life development strategy for coming(prenominal) corporate executives.This lack of career path clarity may cause expatriate managers to reassess their own career goals and the harmony of those goals with the organization. Since career centering is very rare regarding international transfers, many expatriates are probably unwitting of some career issues until they are actually on foreign assignment.