Newspaper Comparison Essay Example for Free

Newspaper Comparison Essay Both the newspapers have the headlines in large bold letters. The story is big news and as many people would be talking about it, they want to catch peoples attention so they will buy the newspaper. The Daily Star briefly explains the story NINE TOP SOCCER STARS IN GANG RAPE' which is quite specific information. I think they do this so when people look at the newspaper that is what they will read and therefore will want to know in more detail what happened, especially as it involves celebrities TOP SOCCER STARS. I think the words GANG RAPE are in inverted commas because this is what the footballers were accused of, maybe a quote of how somebody described the offences committed. However, the Daily Mail does not explain what the article will be about on the front page as the Daily Star does. It merely states SHAMING OF SOCCER I think this is so that peoples curiosity will be raised and they will want to know who shamed soccer, what happened etc. I think both of these headlines are quite effective and would make me want to but the newspaper and so learn more about the story. Both the front pages of the newspapers have sub-headings. The Daily Stars says, Leicester players held in Spanish roasting shame which is quite slangy and explains the article further although here are much more to be found out and will boost the interest of people who read the sub-headings. The Daily Mails sub-heading reads, Premiership stars held in custody over sex allegations. This is quite similar to the Daily Stars sub-heading as it briefly explains what the article is about. However, it is not as slangy as the Daily Stars. A difference between the front pages is that the Daily Mail has two pictures whereas the Daily Star has none. The two pictures are of arrested footballers and they are both looking towards the text in the centre, which invites people to read it. One mans head comes out of the picture frame, which gives the newspaper article a 3D realistic impression. Both the front pages have the beginning of the article and then the reader is referred to another page where it continues. Both the newspapers have by-lines but the Daily Stars is at the top of the beginning of the article and the Daily Mails is at the top of the second column. The two newspapers seem to have conflicting information. The Daily Mail tells us, Eight premiership stars held in custody. In contrast, the Daily Star says, Nine top soccer stars in Gang rape'. This is quite important information that they differ about. However, both the newspapers explain that one player; Steffen Freund was released on bail after being accused of failure to assist a victim. Again, the headlines are in large bold letters. They both include quotes. The Daily Mails headline reads, Players raped three tourists'. This is very short, simple and to the point. It encourages the readers to read about such a shocking story. The quote is probably from a policeman or a spokesperson. The Daily Stars headline is quite different. It includes alliteration GANG RAPE SOCCER STARS ARE MARCHED AWAY IN MANACLES The quote is what the gang was accused of and is the common term the public knows the scandal to be. In the Daily Mail, there is a strapline reading, Leicester City stars on training break in Spain were drinking heavily and brawling before alleged attacks on women in hotel room, say staff. This explains the story further and is quite dramatic, so will make the reader to read the article drinking heavily, brawling, and attacks on women. These terms add interest and shock the reader, especially as celebrities are involved and these people are supposed to set an example to their fans. However, in the article in the Daily Star, there is no strapline or sub-heading which gives me the impression that this newspaper is of a more simple style. The layouts of the newspapers strike me as being quite similar. They both take up a double page spread. On the left they both have the article as well a couple of pictures, though the Daily Mail has three pictures on the left page. Both the right pages are taken up with pictures as well as a section with a picture of each player and w description of what they are accused of. However, the Daily Mails is more detailed as it also has some history on each of the footballers. Also, the Daily Mail has a small article linking with the footballers article, with the headline reading, Young, overpaid and violently out of control. One difference is that the Daily Stars headline does not stretch across the double page, whereas the Daily Mails does. On the left page, the Daily Star has its text in the centre of the page, which makes it seem like the priority to the reader, but the Daily Mail has its text towards the left of the page, which makes it seem less important. The Daily Star has crossheads that break up the text, such as Warned and bruises. I think this is to make the text easier to read for the reader. However, the Daily Mail has no crossheads. The Daily Mail uses language that is simple and self-explanatory, such as, They were said to have forced their way into the womens room at the exclusive La Manga resort on the Costa Calida, where the team has been on a winter training break. There are hardly any long or hard words in the text. I think this is so anybody can read this newspaper whether they are well educated or not. The Daily Star uses quite strong language, as if wanting to dramatise the story as much as possible and hold the interest of the reader. For example, it uses: drunken night out, sex scandal, and smashed down , boisterous stars. This quite contemporary language and gives the impression that the Daily Star is aimed at a less sophisticated reader. The pictures in the newspapers are similar in some ways but not in others. Both the newspapers have the same picture of a German woman (who made the accusation) hiding from the camera under her jacket. This gives the impression that she is quite vulnerable and makes me feel sorry for her. I think the editors who chose this picture wanted o give that impression. The picture in the Daily Mail is, however much larger than in the Daily Star and is also a cut-out. This is quite a modern way of presenting a picture and gives it a 3D effect. Both the newspapers have a section with a photograph of each player, their name and what they are accused of. However, the pictures in the Daily Mail differ to those in the Daily Star. Those in the Daily Star show the players looking like thugs. They all have violent or grumpy expressions on their faces and from these pictures we can imagine them being able to rape the women. But, the picture in the Daily Mail shows the players with smiles on their face, looking into the camera as if to say they are in control. They do not look as thug-like as they did in the Daily Star. Both the newspapers have different picture of the hotel. I think the pictures in the newspapers are given different priorities. The two picture on the lift page of the Daily Star are small and on either side. However, the three pictures in the Daily Mail are very large and take up most of the page. The other picture in the Daily Mail is of the soccer players lawyer, showing her with a grave expression on her face, which gives us the impression that the footballers are in trouble and she is not finding it easy helping them. Other pictures in the Daily Star are of a worried looking boss with Steffen Freund and a large picture of Coyne, one of the accused players looking scared. Both the newspapers hold quotes. The Daily Star has quotes in the middle and towards the end of the article, as does the Daily Mail.

Cell-Permeable Stapled Peptides from HIV1 Gene Products

Cell-Permeable Stapled Peptides from HIV1 Gene Products Cell-Permeable Stapled Peptides Based on HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitors Derived from HIV-1 Gene Products Introduction HIV-1 Integrase (IN), is necessary enzyme for the replication of the virus into the host cells. It catalyzes the integration of viral DNA into the genome of host cells. The mechanisms employed by the enzyme are strand transfer and 3†²-end processing reactions. The enzyme is vital for the virus life cycle and as a result it is a target for anti-HIV-1 drugs. It is reported from previous studies that HIV-1 protein Vpr has inhibitory effect on Integrase activity. The inhibition is a result of protein-protein interactions. Specifically Vpr interacts through its C- terminal domain. Results from previous studies indicate that the active petptide inhibition motif is peptide 1 (Figure 1). Figure 1. Amino acid sequences of peptides 1 and 2, and outline of the study. Regarding the SAR studies, E-K pairs were introduced in i and i + 4 positions to increase the helicity, by forming salt bridges. In the same study to peptide 1 was added an octa-arginine tail, the purpose of which was to improve, cell permeability. The presence of the octa-arginine tail however resulted in increase of cytotoxicity of the peptide. The hypothesis on which the current study was based is that by finding a different way to improve cell permeability without the 8-R tail the cytotoxicity of the peptide would decrease. The idea was to make the peptide more lipophilic, by adding hydrophobic groups on the external of the a-helix, and at the same time improve its helicity. An available method to achieve that is the use of a-helix stabilized peptidomimetics. Specifically, hydrocarbon stapled peptides, in which a hydrocarbon link is formed between successive turns, via a ring closed metathesis (RCM) reaction, were used. By having a hydrocarbon linkage between positions i and i+4 in the a-helix, the helicity is improved because the two positions are covalently bound via the hydrocarbon chain, and simultaneously the lipophilicity and cell permeability of the peptide is increased because of the presence of a hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain on the external part of the a helical structure. In Figure 1 is presented an outline of the study. Design and synthesis of the peptides The lead peptide sequence used was sequence 1 (Fig.1). From previous studies it was known that residues: Phe12, Ile13, Phe15, and Ile17 are vital for IN inhibition activity. Stapling was performed between i and i+4 positions by avoiding substitution of these residues. Protected linear peptides were constructed by Fmoc-solid phase peptide synthesis. The RCM reactions of the protected linear peptides were performed on the resin by treatment with ruthenium-mediated Grubbs second catalyst in 1,2-dichloroethane. All hydrocarbon and all ether stapling was performed, however the first technique resulted in higher yields as it’s presented in Table 1. After RCM, the peptides were deprotected, acetylated, and cleaved from the resin. Purification of the stapled peptides was done by HPLC. However it is not the purpose of this paper to present experimental details. Table 1. Sequences of Designed Stapled Peptides and Their Conversion Yields of RCM Reactions CD Spectroscopy of Linear and Stapled Peptides. CD Spectroscopy was used to analyze the secondary structures of the synthetic stapled peptides, 3S−9S and 11S. Linear peptides, 4L−6L, 8L, 9L, and 11L, were used as control (Figure 3). Negative peaks at 208 and 222 nm, are characteristic for ÃŽ ±-helical structures. All stapled peptides, except 3S, formed ÃŽ ±-helices. The corresponding linear peptides on the other hand including compound 1 showed a broad negative peak around 215 nm, which indicates a ÃŽ ²-sheet structure. It is obvious that stapling of the linear peptides leads to the formation of ÃŽ ±-helices. Figure 3. CD Spectra of stapled peptides (left) and corresponding linear (right). Integrase (IN) Inhibition Assays and MT-4 Luc Assays (anti HIV). The next step was to determine the potency of the synthesized peptides using integrase inhibition assays. IC50 values were determined for stapled and linear compounds regarding both 3-end processing and strand transferring reactions (Figure 4 Left). Anti HIV activity was also screened for all peptides using MT-4 Luc Assays (Figure 4 Right). Figure 4. IC50 Values (Left). MT-4 Luc Assay (Right) All compounds had integrase inhibition activity, however lead compound 2 was way more potent. Regarding the MT-4 Luc assays compound 6S showed similar anti HIV activity as lead compound 2 at concentrations higher than 2.5 um. Compound 8S also showed significant activity at concentrations higher than 5 um. 6S and 2 have almost the same level of anti-HIV activity in cells, however 2 has much higher IN inhibitory activity in vitro than compound 6S. Imaging Experiments Stapled and linear peptides were labeled with fluorescein and imaging experiments were performed to examine their cell permeability. The stapled peptides 6S and 8S demonstrated improved cell permeability compared to the lead compound and the linear peptides. Octaarginine tail functional role investigation. The next step was to study the functional role of the (Arg) 8 tail, besides influencing cell permeability. By using 6S and 6L as lead compounds, a new set of peptides was synthesized (Figure 5). Specifically conjugates of 6S with octaarginine (17) and with the quartet repeat of arginine and glutamic acid (18). For 6L, with the quartet repeat of arginine and glutamic acid (19), and the conjugates of 6S with tetra-arginine (20), penta-arginine (21), hexa-arginine (22), and hepta-arginine (23). IC50 values were determined for the new set of peptides and also MT-4 Luc assays were performed. The presence of the octaarginine tail is necessary for the inhibitory activity however it still makes the peptides cytotoxic. Different lengths in the Arg tail were also examined. Still the octaarginine (17) conjugated peptide is the most potent but compounds 22 and 23 had good potency and lower cytotoxicity than 17, so those compounds were selected as lead compounds for further development. DNA binding experiments were also performed to examine the role of Arg8 tail, and the results indicate that 17 has high DNA binding affinity and that might influence the high inhibition activity of the peptide. Conclusions and Critical Review Stapling caused a significant increase in ÃŽ ±-helicity and cell membrane penetration, and in the expression of potent anti-HIV activity in cells. Stapling and the addition of octa-arginine caused cell membrane penetration. Stapling by itself did not involve cytotoxicity while incorporation of octa-arginine into the structures increased the cytotoxicity of the compounds. Generally it was a well-organized paper. It had good flow of information and background information was provided. The hypotheses were not stated but were easy to understand. The experiments and the data supported the conclusions and the concepts. The figures and the graphs were interpretable and accurate in supporting the conclusions related to them. However there are several interesting points to be addressed. The first point is the configuration of the new double bond formed. It would be interesting to see if the configuration of the double bond would affect the secondary structure and the helicity of the peptides. Another question that need to be addressed is why the stapled peptide 3S did fold into b sheet structure unlike the other stapled peptides which formed a helices. It would be interesting to examine the role of the substituted amino acids of 3S, in the folding of the peptide. Regarding the role of the octaarginine tail, the DNA binding experiments indicate that the octaarginine conjugated peptide has affinity for DNA binding. However it is unclear how exactly the tail affects the potency and the cytotoxicity. Further experiments are necessary to clarify that. I would suggest some NMR experiments to investigate the binding. First 1H-15N HSQC may be performed to the (Arg)8 fused peptide before and after binding with DNA. That would show which residues are involved in binding and would give data to determine the specific interaction. References: Nomura, Wataru, et al. Cell-Permeable Stapled Peptides Based on HIV-1 Integrase Inhibitors Derived from HIV-1 Gene Products. ACS chemical biology 8.10 (2013): 2235-2244.

What Is Petroleum Engineering Biology Essay

What Is Petroleum Engineering Biology Essay Petroleum engineering is an engineering discipline concerned with the activities related to the production of hydrocarbons which can be either crude oil or natural gas and there is subsurface activities that presume to fall within the upstream sector of oil and gas industry which are activities of finding and producing hydrocarbons(refining and distribution to a marked are referred to as the downstream sector)explored by earth scientists and petroleum engineering are the oil and gas industrys two main subsurface disciplines in which focus on maximizing economic recovery of hydrocarbons from petroleum of engineering focuses on estimation of the recoverable volume of the recourses using a detailed understanding of the physical behavior of oil , water and gas within a porous rock within a very high pressure and The combined efforts of geologists and petroleum engineers throughout the life of a hydrocarbon accumulation determine the way in which a reservoir is developed and depleted, and usually they have the highest impact on field economics. Petroleum engineering requires a good knowledge of many other related disciplines, such as geophysics, petroleum geology( drilling, economics, reservoir simulation,well engineering, artificial lift systems) The Drill is a machine which creates holes (usually called boreholes) and shafts in the ground. Drilling rigs can be massive structures housing equipment used to drill water wells, oil wells, or natural gas extraction wells, or they can be small enough to be moved manually by one person.[citation needed] They sample sub-surface mineral deposits, test rock, soil and groundwater physical properties. Drilling fluid: A drilling fluid is any fluid which circulates through a well in order to remove cuttings from a wellbore. This section will discuss fluids which have water or oil as their continuous phase. Air, mist and foam, which can be used as drilling fluids, will not be discussed at this time and drilling fluid must fulfill many functions in order to drill a well successfully, safely, and economically. The most important functions are: 1. Remove drilled cuttings from under the bit. (2) Carry those cuttings out of the hole. (3) Suspend cuttings in the fluid when circulation is stopped. (4) Release cuttings when processed by surface equipment . (5) Allow cuttings to settle out at the surface. 6. Provide enough hydrostatic pressure to balance formation pore pressures. 7. Prevent the bore hole from collapsing or caving in. 8. Protect producing formations from damage which could impair production. 9. Clean, cool, and lubricate the drill bit Occasionally, these functions require the drilling fluid to act in conflicting ways. You can see that items #1-3 are best served if the drilling fluid has a high viscosity, whereas items #4-5 are best accomplished with a low viscosity. In its most basic form a drilling fluid is composed of a liquid (either water or oil). If nothing else is added, whenever the hydrostatic pressure is greater than the formation pore pressure (and the formation is porous and permeable) a portion of the fluid will be flushed into the formation. Since excessive filtrate can cause borehole problems, some sort of filtration control additive is generally added. In order to provide enough hydrostatic pressure to balance abnormal pore pressures, the density of the drilling fluid is increased by adding a weight material (generally barite). Preparation: The oil drilling process starts with finding the land to drill on. After selection, there are normally environmental studies to ensure no damage is done. The mineral rights will need to be acquired as well. A water source will have to be established, if one isnt nearby, and the site will need to be cleared of debris, trees and other objects. A hole is then dug where the main drilling will be. The Base Liquid: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Water fresh or saline à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Oil diesel or crude à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Mineral Oil or other synthetic fluids Dispersed Solids: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Colloidal particles, which are suspended particles of various sizes. Dissolved Solids: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Usually salts, and their effects on colloids most is important and all drilling fluids have essentially the same properties, only the magnitude varies. These properties include density, viscosity, gel strength, filter cake, water loss, and electrical resistance. Though this type of drilling fluid is easy to describe, it is hard to define and even more difficult to find. In the field, a normal fluid generally means that there is a little effort expended to control the range of properties. General rules include: 1. It is used where no unexpected conditions occur. 2. The mud will stabilize, so its properties are in the range required to control the hole conditions. 3. The chief problem is viscosity control Formations usually drilled with this type of mud mainly sands. Since viscosity is the major problem, the amount and condition of the colloidal clay is important. To do this, two general types of treatment are used: 1. Water soluble polyphosphates: (a) They reduce viscosity (b) You should use it alone or with tannins 2. Caustic Soda and Tannins: (a) They also reduce viscosity. (b) You have to use it under more severe conditions than phosphate treatment. The drilling fluids are made to combat particular abnormal hole conditions or to accomplish specific objectives. These are: 1. Special Objectives: (a) Faster penetration rates. (b) Greater protection to producing zones. 2. Abnormal Hole Conditions: (a) Long salt sections. (b) High formation pressures. Lime Base Muds: 1. Water base mud. 2. Treated with large amounts of caustic soda, que-bracho, and lime. 3. Ratio of 2 lb caustic soda, 1.5 lb quebracho and 5 lb lime per 1 barrel of mud. 4. Will go through a highly viscous stage, but will become stable at a low viscosity. 5. Good points: (a) Can tolerate large amounts of contaminating salts. (b) Remains fluid when solids content gets high. 6. Weakness it has a tendency to solidify when subjected to high bottom-hole temperatures. Lime-Treated Muds: 1. Similar to lime based mud differ only in degree. 2. A compromise attempt at overcoming the high temperature gelation problem. (a) Use less lime than lime-base mud. (b) Not nearly so resistant to salt contamination. Emulsion Muds Oil in Water: 1. Oil can be added to any of the normal or special mud with good results 2. No special properties necessary 3. Natural or special emulsifying agents hold oil in tight suspension after mixing. 4. Oils used are: (a) Crude oils. (b) Diesel. (c) Any oil with API gravity between 25 and 50. 5. Oil content in mud may be 1% to 40%. 6. Advantages are: (a) Very stable properties. (b) Easily maintained. (c) Low filtration and thin filter cake. (d) Faster penetration rates. (e) Reduces down-hole friction. 7. Major objection is that the oil in the mud may mask any oil from the formation. Includes muds: 1. Mud with inhibited filtrates. 2. Large amounts of dissolved salts added to the mud. 3. High pH usually necessary for best results. 4. Designed to reduce the amount of formation swelling caused by filtrate inhibit clay hydration. 5. Disadvantages: (A) Needs specialized electric logs. (B) Requires much special attention. (C) Low mud weights cannot be maintained without oil. (D) Hard to increase viscosity. (E) Salt destroys natural filter cake building properties of clays. Gypsum Base Muds: 1. A specialized inhibited mud: (a) Contains large amounts of calcium sulfate. (b) Add 2 lb/bbl gypsum to mud system. (c) Filtration controlled by organic colloids. 2. Advantages: (a) Mud is stable. (b) Economical to maintain. (c) Filtrate does not hydrate clays. (d) High gel strength. 3. Disadvantages: (a) fine abrasives remain in mud. (b) Retains gas in mud. Oil Based Muds: 1. Oil instead of water used as the dispersant. 2. Additives must be oil soluble. 3. Generally pre-mixed and taken to the well-site. 4. To increase aniline value, blown asphalt and un-slaked lime may be added. 5. Advantages: (a) Will not hydrate clays. (b) Good lubricating properties . (c) Normally higher drill rate. 6. Disadvantages: (a) Expensive. (b) Dirty to work with. (c) Requires special electric logs. (d) Viscosity varies with temperature. Inverted Emulsions: 1. Water in oil emulsion. Oil largest component, then water added. Order of addition is important 2. Have some of the advantages of oil muds, but cheaper. Oil-Based Mud Systems: There are two types of systems: 1) invert emulsion, where water is the dispersed phase and oil the continuous phase (water-in-oil mud), and 2) emulsion mud, where oil is the dispersed phase and water is the continuous phase (oil-in-water mud). Emulsifiers are added to control the rheological properties (water increases viscosity, oil decreases viscosity). Air, Mist, Foam-Based Mud Systems: These lower than hydrostatic pressure systems are of four types: dry air or gas is injected into the borehole to remove cuttings and can be used until appreciable amounts of water are encountered, mist drilling is then used, which involves injecting a foaming agent into the air stream, foam drilling is used when large amounts of water is encountered, which uses chemical detergents and polymers to form the foam, and aerated fluids is a mud system injected with air to reduce the hydrostatic pressure. Workover Mud Systems: Also called completion fluids, these are specialized systems designed to minimize the damage formation, be compatible with acidizing and fracturing fluids and reduce clay/shale hydration and They are usually highly treated brines and blended salt fluid. Set Up and Drilling: The main hole is dug wide at the top and is drilled down with just a basic small drill. Two other holes are also dug to store equipment and dirt. Next the main rig is brought in and set up over the main drilling hole. The basic rig is made up of a drill bit and piping that sends the drill further and further down, scaffolding with cable and pulley to bring the drill up and an engine to turn the drill. The drill is sent down, where it chews up the earth. The mud is moved up the piping into a hole built for storage. As the drill goes down, more piping is added, and when a drill wears out, it is pulled up and replaced. Finding Oil: Once mud, being pulled up from the drill site, shows signs of oil residue, the drill is removed and testing is done. Core samples are taken as well as pressure and gas tests. When it is confirmed that the oil has been found, an explosive charge is sent down in the form of a perforating gun. This will crack the rock so that oil can flow into the drill area. After the rock is cracked, a pipe is lowered down for the oil to be collected. The hole is then capped off to avoid spillage and a pump is set up to pull the oil out of the ground.

Patriarchy in India, China, Greece and Rome Essay -- Sociology, Classi

Most classical society’s political and social organization revolved around the idea of patriarchy, a male dominated social system. This system exacerbated the inherit difference between men and woman and assigned gender roles based on these observations. Men were generally regarded as superior to woman therefore given greater religious and political roles as well as more legal rights. As the natural inverse, women were subordinated and seen as week; their main roles reproductive and domestic. Information about patriarchy in the classical era, though abundant, was, for the most part, written by men, therefore history does not give us an accurate depiction of women’s viewpoints. Four societies of the classical era, India, China, Greece, and Rome, adopted a patriarchal system, however, due to many factors, each developed identifiable characteristics. Because they did not have a traditional role in government, women had work their way around the system to gain any type of political leverage. Empress Lu violated every cultural and social norm by retaining power as a regent throughout the reins of her son, grandson and adopted grandson. Tradidtionaly regents ruled from behind the scenes while the emperor himself was unable to make decisions, usualy due to age or heath complications, however Empress Lu eradicated any competitors for the thrown. As the end of her reign was nearing, she expected her nephews to succeed her. Even as the first empress, not unfamiliar with disrupting tradition, she left the emperorship to the next male in her bloodline (Doc. 5) not a female. Though Empress Lu defied all expectations of women, her power as an Empress was still undisputed due to the Mandate of Heaven, an idea originating in the Shang dynasty.... ...c. 4). This is an example of one of the seven unequal relationships in Confucianism. Much of the social structure of classical China was based on Confucian ideals (Doc. 3). In Greece the relationship between a husband and wife also very unequal due to her young age and lack of education. Alone a woman had no political rights and limited legal powers therefore is was necessary for a husband to provide for his wife much like a father would (Doc. 6) A woman would learn house hold management and eventually produce heirs. These two similar systems of social roles was not a benevolent system. It did not take into account the welfare of individuals, particularly woman who had little power to leave in a bad marital situation. However by insuring that people know their place, which kept them in line, classical societies were more prosperous and able to run more smoothly.

American Poet: Phillis Wheatley Essay -- African American Poet Poetry

American Poet: Phillis Wheatley Phillis Wheatley was an African-born slave in the last quarter of the eighteenth-century in New England. She was born in West Africa and brought to America on the slave ship Phillis. She was, however, much more than chattel-she was a poet. Phillis was the first African American to have a book published. In a time when women were not expected to be able to read or write, and when teaching an African American to be literate was frowned upon, Phillis Wheatley became educated in Latin and English literature. The education of Phillis Wheatley was, for the most part, for the intent of training "a servant and would-be companion for domestic utility," in which they undoubtedly succeeded. However, they "got an intellectual adornment" who, with her knowledge of the poems of Alexander Pope, the "Puritanical whiteness of her thoughts," and ability to write poems, soon became a celebrity among Boston?s social elite (Richmond 18,19). Phillis's published her first poem in 1767, only a few short years after her initial introduction to the English language. Between the time of the publication of her first poem and her first book, Poems on Various Subjects, in 1773, Phillis gained notoriety by publishing elegies in New England newspapers; her most famous elegy being that for a popular Methodist minister, Reverend George Whitefield in 1770. Although Phillis?s poetry was well received throughout New England, there were people who did not believe all of the poetry was actually written by Phillis. Her expertise with the heroic couplet form perfected by her literary hero Alexander Pope and the allusions to classic Greek and English poetry caused the speculation. In order to prove the validity of her poetry, Joh... ...iterature. New York: Norton, 1997. 165-167. O?Neale, Sondra A. "Phillis Wheatley." Dictionary of Literary Biography, Volume 31: American Colonial Writers, 1735-1781. Ed. Emory Elliot. Princeton: Gale, 1984. 260-267. Richmond, Merle A. Bit the Vassal Soar: Interpretive Essays on the Life and Poetry of Phillis Wheatley and George Moses Horton. Washington, D.C.: Howard UP, 1974. Walker, Alice. "In Search of Our Mothers? Gardens." The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. Ed. Henry Louis Gates Jr. New York: Norton, 1997. 2383. Wheatley, Phillis. Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. New York: AMS Press, 1976. Rpt. of Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. Philadelphia, 1786. ---. "To His Excellency General Washington." The Norton Anthology of African American Literature. Ed. Henry Louis Gates, Jr. New York: Norton, 1997. 177.

Politics and Other Social Sciences Essay

Man is a social animal. His social life has many dimensions – political, economic, sociological, psychological, historical etc. Social sciences deal with this multi-dimensional man, his collective life, social behaviour, organisations and activities. All of these dimensions of man are inter-connected leading to interrelationship among various social sciences. Political science, being one of the social sciences dealing with the political aspect of social man, has close connections with other social sciences. The modem approach in the study of social sciences is primarily interdisciplinary. It means that scholars of one specialized social science should work in coordination with scholars of other disciplines. This has resulted in a great deal of overlapping of disciplines. Interdisciplinary study has resulted in a rapid development of theoretical and applied aspects of politics and the sharpening of tools of research and analysis in the present century. Political Science and History Political Science and History are very closely connected. Jellinek remarked: It is almost a common-place today to affirm the necessity of historical study as a basis for a proper understanding of institutions, whether they be political, legal, or social.1 E.H. Carr holds that â€Å"the dual function of history (is) to enable man to understand the society of the past and to increase his mastery over the society of the present†} The cause and effect relationship of social phenomena can be understood by scientific understanding of history. History furnishes the political scientist the raw materials for comparison and induction. The relation of political science and history is well brought out in words of Seeley: â€Å"History without Political Science has no fruit. Political Science without history has no root†. In the words of Freeman, â€Å"history is past politics and politics is present history†. While political science is dependent on history for its material, it must be made clear that history supplies only part of its material. Again, all facts of history are not useful to political science. Garner rightly points out that not all of history is â€Å"past politics†. Much of it – like the history of art, of science, of inventions, discoveries, military campaigns, language, customs, dress, industries, religious controversies – has little, if any, relation to politics and affords no material for political investigation. Political Science selects relevant facts out of history. All political institutions are products of history. Without historical foundations, political science becomes merely speculative and abstract. History is a vast storehouse of facts and information from which political science draw its relevant materials for generalizations. Lipson writes: â€Å"with its chronological treatment, history offers to the student of politics a sense of growth and development and thus affords insight into the process of social change†. Political science has influence on history. Political ideas of thought leaders have contributed in shaping human history. Political revolutions and political concepts like democracy, liberty, equality and political ideologies like liberalism, nationalism and socialism have substantially influenced the history of societies. Garner aptly observes: â€Å"to interpret history in its true significance we must study that politically. Behaviouralism with its stress on empirical method has undermined the importance of historical method in recent political studies. Traditional method relied more on history as it believed that history can assist in understanding the present and act as a guide for the future. Political Science and Economics Political Science and economics are very closely related and cover a common ground to a large extent. Early writers on economics considered their subject as a branch of political science and termed it ‘political economy’. Politics influences substantially the economic system. The state formulates the economic policies and regulates the economy. Production and distribution of wealth, price control, trade, taxation, government ownership of public utilities, banking, export-import and such other economic activities are regulated by political decision-making. The solution of many economic problems must come through political channels. Indeed many of the complex problems of the modern state are essentially economic in character: the reduction of economic disparity, removal of poverty and unemployment, the adjustment of the claims of capital and labour, nationalization and the achievement of a welfare state. The modern state, Galbraith writes, is an â€Å"Industrial State†. On the other hand, political and social life is profoundly influenced by economic conditions. Karl Marx regarded politics as a part of political economy and maintained that the economic basis of society influences politics which belongs to the superstructure. Political movements and revolutions are profoundly influenced by economic causes. All political ideologies like liberalism, socialism, imperialism, fascism have an economic basis. The political behaviour of man and various organized groups is influenced by economic factors. The main functions of modern welfare state are basically economic. There are economic motives behind many political policies. Political norms like liberty, equality, rights, justice are very often evaluated on an economic basis. Thus there is close relationship between political and economic life. The interaction of the two disciplines has resulted in the increasing importance given to political economy in recent years. Political Science and Sociology No two social sciences are as closely related as political science and sociology. Sociology is the fundamental social science. It is the root of all the social sciences. It is the most comprehensive social science which studies all aspects of the life of man in society. In the words of Small, it is the â€Å"science of men in their associated processes†. Sociology has a much wider scope than political science. It is a study of society in all its manifestations, while political science is primarily a study of the state and government. In other words, sociology deals with man in all his social relations, while political science deals with the man in his political relations. Sociology deals with both organized and unorganised communities and groups, while political science is concerned with organised political communities. The subject of sociology is social man and that of political science is political man. The relation between the two sciences is well brought out by Garner. He writes: â€Å"Sociology derives from political science knowledge of the facts regarding the organization and activities of the state, while political science derives in large measure from sociology its knowledge of the origin of political authority and the laws of social control†. State and politics cannot be studied objectively without an understanding of the general laws of social development. Political institutions and processes are influenced by social forces and factors. Not only does sociology influence political science, but politics also influences the social system. The political system controls and regulates social forces and customs. Politics engineers the process of peaceful social change and is engaged in maintaining social stability and cooperation. Political control is the most important and the most effective among all forms of social control. Contemporary political studies have borrowed concepts, methods and techniques of research from sociology. The current sociological impact on the study of politics can be traced back to the influence of Max Weber. Interdisciplinary study of political science and sociology got tremendous fillip with the emergence of political behaviouralism. A new branch of study named political sociology has emerged as a result of the interaction between political science and sociology. G. Sartori has observed that politics has got socialised and society has got politicised in the present times to such an extent that politics cannot be studied in isolation from sociology. Political Science and Psychology Psychology is the science of mental attitudes and human behaviour. It studies human instincts, attitudes, sentiments and emotions. It has been emphasized that scientific study of social phenomena must have a psychological basis. Psychological factors have become increasingly important for understanding what people believe about politics and how they act in political situations. Study of political behaviour has assumed great significance under the impact of behaviouralism in political studies. The psychological approach in political science goes back to 1908 when A. F. Bentley’s â€Å"The Process of Government† and Graham Wallas’s â€Å"Human Nature in Politics† were published. The psychological approach received further impetus from Chicago School political scientists such as C. E Merrium, Stuart Rice, George Catlin and Harold Lasswell. Modern writers like Tarde, Le Bon, McDougall, Graham Wallas, Baldwin and Ellwood have attempted to explain and interpret political and social phenomena through the laws of psychology. Governments to be stable and popular must reflect the mental ideas and moral sentiments of the people who are subject to its control. Modern governments have devised subtle methods of the psychological manipulation of the masses. Public opinion is being moulded by ingenious propaganda as in politics the art of controlling the mass mind is increasingly becoming the key to political power and stability. Political Science and Ethics Political science has close historical links with philosophy and ethics. Initially, the study of state in Greece was a part of ethics. Ethics as a branch of study investigates the laws of morality and formulates rules of conduct. Ethics is the science of the moral order while political science is the science of the political order. Both have to deal with questions of right and wrong, good and bad, just and unjust. Plato conceived the notion of an ideal state in his ‘Republic’ and believed that the state should train men in a life of virtue. The end of the state, according to Aristotle, is good life for the citizens. Modern idealists like Rousseau, Kant, Hegel and Green have accepted the state as an ethical institution which creates conditions for the fullest development of human personality. Lord Acton goes so far as to say: â€Å"The great question is to discover, not what governments prescribe, but what they ought to prescribe†. Fox held that what is morally wrong can never be politically right. Gandhi’s lasting contribution to politics is his insistence upon the spiritualization of politics i.e., application of truth, non-violence, love, self-suffering to man’s social and political life. The end of the state has been formulated by the greatest political thinkers in terms of moral values. The state exists to promote social and moral good on the largest possible scale. A good citizen is possible in a good state and perfect state cannot be conceived where wrong ethical principles prevail. Laws are obeyed with greater readiness if they are based on the moral ideas of the community. Politics also influences ethics. Politics safeguards the ethical norms of a society. The state acts as the guardian of social morality. The attempts of some contemporary political scientists to create a value-free political science have not been successful. David Easton aptly observes: â€Å"The goal of value-free research is a myth†¦ The utility of political research stems from the fact that it helps men to decide upon the kind of political system they would prefer and to understand how to go about changing social policy to obtain it. The inspiration behind political science is clearly ethical.† Political Science and Jurisprudence The state is a social phenomenon as well as a legal institution. From the legal point of view, the state is a person with rights and duties. It is a juristic personality subject to the process of law. The state operates through law and hence jurisprudence, as the science of law, is closely related to politics. Strictly jurisprudence is a subdivision of political science but on account of its vast scope and technical nature it is studied as a separate branch of study. Jurisprudence has several branches, namely, civil law, criminal law, constitutional law, international law etc. Constitutional law defines the organs of the state, their relations to one another, and the rights and duties of individuals. International law regulates the relations of states and various international organizations: If law influences politics, politics also influences law. Different political systems have different legal systems; Laws tend to be a reflex of a particular social pattern and are influenced by the nature of the political system. Political Science and Anthropology Anthropology deals with man as a social being. It deals with the origin, classification and relations of races, languages and cultures found in different localities. Politics uses the vast material gathered by anthropology. Physical anthropology dealing with the conditions of primitive men and their environment facilitates the study of the origin and evolution of various political institutions. Similarly social or cultural anthropology dealing with the growth and interpretation of customs, traditions, habits and religious beliefs etc., explains the forces and factors operating in political institutions. Anthropological data have assumed great importance in the study of the formation of national character. Political Science and Geography Many writers have emphasized the influence of geographical conditions and physical environment upon national character. Even national policies have been shown to be determined by such conditions. The influence of climate, topography, character of the soil, insularity, the presence or absence of mountains, rivers and outlets to the sea has been emphasized by various political thinkers from Aristotle to the present. Notable among them are Bodin, Rousseau, Montesquieu and Buckle. The emphasis upon geographical factors as determinants of state policy and governmental functioning has resulted in the development of a new science known as ‘Geopolitics’. Since territory is an important element of the state, geographical factors naturally influence political activities. These factors have assumed great significance especially in the field of defence strategy. Political Science and Statistics Statistics is concerned with systematic collection, analysis and presentation of numerical data. Von Mohl described statistics as a means through which a picture of existing political and social conditions could be obtained. Social phenomena and the results of governmental action are quantitatively measured by it. Statistical findings â€Å"serve as a guide for administrative action, as a basis for legislation, and as a means for testing the expediency or effectiveness of political policies†. Therefore, all governments collect statistical information concerning finance, trade, military and economic resources, social conditions of the people etc. Behavioural approach to the study of political science has put excessive stress on statistical methods (quantification, techniques), thereby contributing a lot to the scientific character of political science. The foregoing discussion clearly shows the intimate relation of political science to other social sciences. A proper understanding of political institutions, processes and phenomena calls for reliance upon a number of sister disciplines. Specialization of social sciences should not lead to narrow compartmentalization. Interdisciplinary approach to the study of social sciences has resulted in the blurring of rigid boundaries of various disciplines and highlighting the need for mutual exchange and interaction among social scientists.

Darkness at Noon Revision Notes Essay

Why does Nikolai Rubashov confess to crimes against the revolution that he has not committed? What are the political options open to Rubashov following his arrest? Which option does he choose? Are the implications of the political argument in Arthur Koester’s Darkness at Noon anti-revolutionary or merely anti-Stalinist? Is Darkness at Noon an attempt to explain why the Russian Revolution in particular failed or is it an attempt to explain why all revolutions that rely on violent means to achieve their ends must fail? What is the central political argument of Arthur Koestler’s Darkness at Noon? What are the political implications of his argument? Outline the most important differences in the political mentality of Rubashov’s interrogators- Ivanov and Gletkin? What political options are open to Rubashov after he is arrested? Following Rubashov’s arrest Ivanov gave the option of going through a public trial by confessing to certain acts, or having a private administrative trial. Public trial: * This could lead to the discrediting and weakening of the ideology * Rubashov held a high position within the party, and for him to be seen as a dissident would have stirred other revolutionaries * Would have made it more difficult for the party to discredit his views if Rubashov did not publically denounce himself * Doesn’t serve the revolution * Preserves his own honour in some ways but is of no use to the greater good Confess: * Rubashov capitulates in order to serve the revolution and the party * Although he was not guilty of anything, he cannot find any reason in his own mind not to capitulate. Rubashov has been a creature of the party for his whole life, and now the party demands that he should confess * Justice and objective truth have ceased to have any meaning for him * He feels superior to his Czarist officer who inhabits the next cell, showing the differences in thought processes from a person ingrained with the party ideology versus the ‘bourgeois’ angle who would uphold his honour * The officer believes that honour is about doing what you think is right, an individualist perspective, where as Rubashov contends that to uphold the honour of the regime/revolution is more honourable. Ideology dictates the actions of all players in the regime – citizen and state To serve the revolution, Rubashov finds it necessary to capitulate – serves the greater good – it is better to confess to crimes not committed than to risk the reputation of the revolution for his own honour – grammatical fiction: there is no I. This is a demonstration of the corruption of revolutions enacted through violent means. The means don’t justify the ends when the citizens are being overlooked – the revolution is supposed to act for the good of the people, but the ideology has become corrupted to serve the good of itself and its leader. Outline the most important differences in the political mentality of Rubashov’s interrogators- Ivanov and Gletkin? Ivanov * He lived before the revolution, and was an intellectual who helped bring about and serve the revolution * He is not a man of violence – would prefer to persuade Rubashov rather than beat him. Coercion is a last resort for him, but if it is necessary, he believes that the ends do justify the means. Gletkin * Gletkin is of the second generation of the revolution. He comes from a peasant background, is not an intellectual. Rubashov thinks of him as little more than a violent thug. * His political views are therefore those of the party, he accepts what is force fed to him without thinking critically about it. * He is a man of violence. He wants to beat and torture Rubashov to obtain his confession. Therefore he doesn’t believe in the idea of persuasion. However this does show that he believes the end justifies the means. * Gletkin is the culmination of what Koestler argues went wrong with the revolution – he represents totalitarian thought, and he is the kind of individual that it produces. * ‘born without an umbilical cord’